Nuclear power plants use energy. The first nuclear power plants and their role in the development of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy controversies
How many of you have seen a nuclear power plant at least from afar? Taking into account the fact that there are only ten operating nuclear power plants in Russia and they are protected bless you, I think the answer in most cases is negative. However, people in LiveJournal, as you know, are experienced. Okay, how many people saw the nuclear power plant from the inside back then? Well, for example, have you felt the body of a nuclear reactor with your own hand? Nobody. I guessed?
Well, today all subscribers of this photo blog have the opportunity to see all these high technologies as closely as possible. I understand that it’s much more interesting live, but let’s start small. In the future, perhaps I will be able to take a few people with me, but for now we are studying the materiel!
02
. So, we are forty-five kilometers from the construction site of the 4th stage of the Novovoronezh NPP. Not far from the existing nuclear power plant (the first power unit was launched back in the sixties of the last century), two modern power units with a total capacity of 2400 MW are being built. Construction is being carried out according to the new project "AES-2006", which provides for the use of VVER-1200 reactors. But about the reactors themselves a little later. 
03
. It is the fact that the construction has not yet been completed that gives us a rare chance to see everything with our own eyes. Even the reactor hall, which in the future will be hermetically sealed and opened for maintenance only once a year. 
04
. As can be seen in the previous photo, the dome of the outer containment shell of the seventh power unit is still at the concreting stage, but the reactor building of power unit No. 6 already looks more interesting (see photo below). In total, concreting this dome required more than 2,000 cubic meters of concrete. The diameter of the dome at the base is 44 m, thickness - 1.2 m. Pay attention to the green pipes and the volumetric metal cylinder (weight - 180 tons, diameter - about 25 m, height - 13 m) - these are elements of the passive heat removal system (PHRS ). They are being installed at a Russian nuclear power plant for the first time. In the event of a complete blackout of all nuclear power plant systems (as happened at Fukushima), the PHRS can provide long-term heat removal from the reactor core. 
05
. By far the largest element of a nuclear power plant are cooling towers. In addition, it is one of the most effective devices for cooling water in circulating water supply systems. The high tower creates the very air draft that is necessary for effective cooling of circulating water. Thanks to the high tower, one part of the vapor is returned to the cycle, and the other is carried away by the wind. 
06
. The height of the shell of the cooling tower of power unit No. 6 is 171 meters. It's about 60 floors. Now this structure is the tallest among similar ones ever built in Russia. Its predecessors did not exceed 150 m in height (at the Kalinin NPP). The construction of the structure took more than 10 thousand cubic meters of concrete. 
07
. At the base of the cooling tower (diameter is 134 m) there is a so-called pool bowl. Its upper part is “paved” with irrigation blocks. The sprinkler is the main structural element of this type of cooling tower, designed to break up the flow of water flowing through it and provide it with a long time and maximum contact area with the cooling air. Essentially, these are lattice modules made of modern polymer materials. 
08
. Naturally, I wanted to take an epic shot of the top, but the already installed sprinkler prevented me from doing this. Therefore, we move to the cooling tower of power unit No. 7. Alas, it was freezing at night and we had a bad time with the elevator ride to the very top. He's frozen. 
09
. Okay, maybe I’ll have the chance to ride to such a high altitude someday, but for now here’s a shot of the irrigation system being installed. 
10
. I was thinking... Or maybe we were simply not allowed to go upstairs for security reasons? 
11
. The entire territory of the construction site is replete with warning, prohibitory and simply propaganda posters and signs. 
12
. OK. We teleport to the central control room (CCR) building.
Well, of course, nowadays everything is controlled using computers. 
13
. The huge room, flooded with light, is literally crammed with orderly rows of cabinets with automatic relay protection systems. 
14
. Relay protection continuously monitors the state of all elements of the electrical power system and responds to the occurrence of damage and/or abnormal conditions. When damage occurs, the protection system must identify a specific damaged area and turn it off by acting on special power switches designed to interrupt fault currents (short circuit or ground fault). 
15
. Fire extinguishers are placed along each wall. Automatic, of course. 
16
. Next we move to the 220 kV switchgear building (KRUE-220). One of the most photogenic places in the entire nuclear power plant, in my opinion. There is also KRUE-500, but they didn’t show it to us. GIS-220 is part of the general station electrical equipment and is designed to receive power from external power lines and distribute it at the site of the station under construction. That is, while power units are being built, with the help of GIS-220, electricity is provided directly to the facilities under construction. 
17
. In the AES-2006 project, according to which the sixth and seventh power units are being built, complete 220/500 kV closed-type gas-insulated switchgears with SF6 insulation were used for the first time in the power distribution scheme at distribution substations. Compared to open switchgears, which have so far been used in nuclear energy, the area of a closed one is several times smaller. To understand the scale of the building, I recommend returning to the title photo. 
18
. Naturally, after the new power units are put into operation, the KRUE-220 equipment will be used to transfer electricity produced at the Novovoronezh NPP to the Unified Energy System. Pay attention to the boxes near the power line poles. Most electrical equipment used in construction is manufactured by Siemens. 
19
. But not only. Here, for example, is a Hyundai autotransformer.
The weight of this unit is 350 tons, and it is designed to convert electricity from 500 kV to 220 kV. 
20
. There are (which is nice) our solutions. Here, for example, is a step-up transformer produced by JSC Elektrozavod. The first domestic transformer plant, created in 1928, played a colossal role in the industrialization of the country and in the development of domestic energy. Equipment bearing the Elektrozavod brand operates in more than 60 countries around the world. 
21
. Just in case, I’ll explain a little about transformers. In general, the power distribution scheme (after completion of construction and commissioning, of course) provides for the production of electricity with voltage of two classes - 220 kV and 500 kV. At the same time, the turbine (more about it later) generates only 24 kV, which is supplied via a current conductor to a block transformer, where it is increased to 500 kV. After which part of the energy capacity is transferred through GIS-500 to the Unified Energy System. The other part goes to autotransformers (those same Hyundais), where it is reduced from 500 kV to 220 kV and through GIS-220 (see above) it also enters the power system. So, as the mentioned block transformer, three single-phase step-up “electric factory” transformers are used (each power is 533 MW, weight – 340 tons). 
22
. If it’s clear, let’s move on to the steam turbine installation of power unit No. 6. Forgive me, my story seems to go from end to beginning (if we proceed from the process of generating electricity), but approximately in this order we walked around the construction site. So I beg your pardon. 
23
. So, the turbine and generator are hidden under the casing. Therefore, I will explain. Actually, a turbine is a unit in which the thermal energy of steam (at a temperature of about 300 degrees and a pressure of 6.8 MPa) is converted into mechanical energy of rotor rotation, and already at the generator into the electrical energy we need. The assembled weight of the machine is more than 2600 tons, its length is 52 meters, and it consists of more than 500 components. About 200 trucks were used to transport this equipment to the construction site. This turbine K-1200–7-3000 was manufactured at the Leningrad Metal Plant and is the first high-speed (3000 rpm) turbine with a capacity of 1200 MW in Russia. This innovative development was created specifically for new generation nuclear power units, which are being built according to the AES-2006 project. The photo shows a general view of the turbine shop. Or a turbine hall, if you like. Old-school nuclear scientists call a turbine a machine. 
24
. The turbine condensers are located on the floor below. The condenser group belongs to the main technological equipment of the turbine room and, as everyone has already guessed, is designed to convert turbine exhaust steam into liquid. The resulting condensate, after the necessary regeneration, is returned to the steam generator. The weight of the condensing unit equipment, which includes 4 condensers and a piping system, is more than 2000 tons. Inside the capacitors there are about 80 thousand titanium tubes, which form a heat transfer surface with a total area of 100 thousand square meters. 
25
. Got it? Here's an almost cross-section of the turbine building and let's move on. At the very top is an overhead crane. 
26
. We move to the block control panel of power unit No. 6.
The purpose, I think, is clear without explanation. Figuratively speaking, this is the brain of a nuclear power plant. 
27
. BPU elements. 
28
. And finally, we are going to see the premises of the reactor compartment! Actually, this is the place where the nuclear reactor, the primary circuit and their auxiliary equipment are located. Naturally, in the foreseeable future it will become sealed and inaccessible. 
29
. And in the most natural way, when you get inside, the first thing you do is lift your head and be amazed at the size of the containment dome. Well, and a polar crane at the same time. A circular overhead crane (polar crane) with a lifting capacity of 360 tons is designed for the installation of large-sized and heavy containment zone equipment (reactor housing, steam generators, pressure compensator, etc.). After the nuclear power plant is put into operation, the crane will be used for repair work and transportation of nuclear fuel. 
30
. Then, of course, I rush to the reactor and watch its upper part in fascination, not yet suspecting that the situation is similar with icebergs. So that's what you are, reindeer. Figuratively speaking, this is the heart of a nuclear power plant. 
31
. Reactor vessel flange. Later, an upper block with CPS drives (reactor control and protection system) will be installed on it, ensuring sealing of the main connector. 
32
. Nearby we can see the aging pool. Its internal surface is a welded structure made of stainless steel sheet. It is designed for temporary storage of spent nuclear fuel unloaded from the reactor. After the residual heat release has been reduced, the used fuel is removed from the spent fuel pool to a nuclear industry enterprise engaged in fuel reprocessing and regeneration (storage, disposal or reprocessing). 
33
. And along the wall there are hydraulic reservoirs of the passive core flooding system. They belong to passive safety systems, that is, they operate without the involvement of personnel and the use of external power sources. To simplify, these are giant barrels filled with an aqueous solution of boric acid. In the event of an emergency, when the pressure in the primary circuit drops below a certain level, liquid is supplied to the reactor and the core is cooled. Thus, the nuclear reaction is quenched by a large amount of boron-containing water, which absorbs neutrons. It is worth noting that in the AES-2006 project, according to which the fourth stage of the Novovoronezh NPP is being built, for the first time an additional, second, stage of protection is provided - hydraulic tanks for the passive flood of the active zone (8 of 12 tanks), each with a volume of 120 cubic meters. 
34
. During future scheduled maintenance and replacement of nuclear fuel, it will be possible to get inside the reactor compartment through a transport lock. It is a 14-meter cylindrical chamber with a diameter of over 9 meters, hermetically sealed on both sides with gate leaves that open alternately. The total weight of the gateway is about 230 tons. 
35
. From the outside of the gateway there is a panoramic view of the entire construction site in general and power unit No. 7 in particular. 
36
. Well, after taking a breath of fresh air, we go down below to see, in fact, the cylindrical reactor vessel. But so far we only come across technological pipelines. The big green pipe is one of the contours, so we are already very close. 
37
. And here he is. Pressurized water-pressurized pressurized water nuclear reactor model VVER-1200. I won’t delve into the jungle of nuclear fission and nuclear chain reaction (you’re probably already reading diagonally), I’ll only add that inside the reactor there are many fuel elements (so-called fuel rods) in the form of a set of sealed tubes made of special alloys with a diameter of 9.1 –13.5 mm and several meters long, filled with nuclear fuel pellets, as well as control rods that can be moved remotely from the control panel along the entire height of the core. These rods are made from substances that absorb neutrons, such as boron or cadmium. When the rods are inserted deeply, a chain reaction becomes impossible, since neutrons are strongly absorbed and removed from the reaction zone. In this way the power of the reactor is regulated. Now it’s clear why there are so many holes in the upper part of the reactor? 
38
. Yes, I almost forgot about the main circulation pump (MCP). It also belongs to the main technological equipment of the reactor building and is designed to create coolant circulation in the primary circuit. Within an hour, the unit pumps more than 25 thousand cubic meters of water. The main circulation pump also provides cooling of the core in all operating modes of the reactor plant. The installation includes four main circulation pumps. 
39
. Well, to consolidate the material covered, we look at the simplest diagram of the operation of a nuclear power plant. It's simple, isn't it? In particularly advanced cases, re-read the post again, hehe))
40
. In general, it’s something like this. But for those who are close to the topic, I’ll throw in a few more cards with people. Agree, there are not many of them in the report, and yet, since 2006, many thousands of specialists of various profiles have worked here. 
41
. Someone below... 
42
. And someone above... Although you don’t see them, they are there. 
43
. And this is one of the most honored builders of the Novovoronezh NPP - the DEMAG crawler self-propelled crane. It was he who lifted and installed these multi-ton elements of the reactor and turbine halls (load capacity - 1250 tons). The guy-installer and the truck to understand the scale, and at his full height (115 meters), look at the handsome man in photos 03 and 04. 
And as a conclusion. Since March of this year, for reasons unknown to me, the operating Novovoronezh NPP and the Novovoronezh NPP-2 under construction have been combined. What we visited and what we used to call NVNPP-2 is now called the fourth stage of NVNPP, and the power units under construction from the first and second turned into the sixth and seventh, respectively. Info 110%. Those who wish can immediately go to rewrite articles on Wikipedia, and I thank the employees of the department for relations with the NPP power units under construction and especially Tatyana, without whom this excursion most likely would not have taken place. Also, my thanks for the educational program on the construction of nuclear power plants to the shift supervisor Roman Vladimirovich Gridnev, as well as to Vladimir
The production of electricity using a nuclear chain reaction in the Soviet Union first occurred at the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant. Compared to today's giants, the first nuclear power plant had only 5 MW of power, and the largest operating nuclear power plant in the world today, Kashiwazaki-Kariwa (Japan), had 8212 MW.
Obninsk NPP: from start-up to museum
Soviet scientists led by I.V. Kurchatov, after completing military programs, immediately began creating a nuclear reactor with the goal of using thermal energy to convert it into electricity. They developed the first nuclear power plant in the shortest possible time, and in 1954 the launch of an industrial nuclear reactor took place.
The release of potential, both industrial and professional, after the creation and testing of nuclear weapons allowed I.V. Kurchatov to tackle the problem entrusted to him of generating electricity by mastering the heat generated during a controlled nuclear reaction. Technical solutions for creating a nuclear reactor were mastered during the launch of the very first experimental uranium-graphite reactor F-1 in 1946. The first nuclear chain reaction was carried out on it, and almost all recent theoretical developments were confirmed.
For an industrial reactor, it was necessary to find design solutions related to the continuous operation of the installation, heat removal and supply to the generator, circulation of the coolant and its protection from radioactive contamination.
The team of Laboratory No. 2, headed by I.V. Kurchatov, together with NIIkhimmash under the leadership of N.A. Dollezhal, worked out all the nuances of the structure. Physicist E.L. Feinberg was entrusted with the theoretical development of the process.
The reactor was started up (critical parameters were reached) on May 9, 1954; on June 26 of the same year, the nuclear power plant was connected to the network, and in December it reached its design capacity.
After operating as an industrial power plant for almost 48 years without incident, the Obninsk NPP was shut down in April 2002. In September of the same year, the unloading of nuclear fuel was completed.
Even during the work at the nuclear power plant, many excursions came, the station worked as a classroom for future nuclear scientists. Today, a memorial museum of nuclear energy has been organized at its base.
The first foreign nuclear power plant
Nuclear power plants, following the example of Obninsk, did not immediately begin to be created abroad. In the United States, the decision to build its own nuclear power plant was made only in September 1954, and only in 1958 the Shippingport nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania was launched. The capacity of the Shippingport nuclear power plant was 68 MW. Foreign experts call it the first commercial nuclear power plant. The construction of nuclear power plants is quite expensive; the nuclear power plant cost the US treasury $72.5 million.
After 24 years, in 1982, the station was stopped, by 1985 the fuel was unloaded and dismantling of this huge structure weighing 956 tons began for subsequent disposal.
Prerequisites for the creation of a peaceful atom
After the discovery of uranium nuclear fission by German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, research into chain reactions began.
I.V. Kurchatov, prompted by A.B. Ioffe, together with Yu.B. Khariton, wrote a note to the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences on nuclear issues and the importance of work in this direction. I.V. Kurchatov was working at that time at the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology (Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology), headed by A.B. Ioffe, on problems of nuclear physics.
In November 1938, based on the results of studying the problem and after I.V. Kurchatov’s speech at the Plenum of the Academy of Sciences (Academy of Sciences), a note was drawn up to the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences on the organization of work in the USSR on the physics of the atomic nucleus. It traces the rationale for generalizing all the disparate laboratories and institutes in the USSR, belonging to different ministries and departments, essentially dealing with the same problems.
Suspension of work on nuclear physics
Some of this organizational work was done before the Second World War, but major progress began to occur only in 1943, when I.V. Kurchatov was asked to head the atomic project.
After September 1, 1939, a kind of vacuum gradually began to form around the USSR. Scientists did not immediately feel this, although Soviet intelligence agents immediately began to warn about the secrecy of speeding up work on studying nuclear reactions in Germany and Great Britain.
The Great Patriotic War immediately made adjustments to the work of all scientists in the country, including nuclear physicists. Already in July 1941, LFTI was evacuated to Kazan. I.V. Kurchatov began to deal with the problem of mine clearance of sea vessels (protection against sea mines). For his work on this topic in wartime conditions (three months on ships in Sevastopol until November 1941, when the city was almost completely under siege), he was awarded the Stalin Prize for organizing a demagnetization service in Poti (Georgia).
After a severe cold upon arrival in Kazan, it was only towards the end of 1942 that I.V. Kurchatov was able to return to the topic of nuclear reaction.
Atomic project under the leadership of I.V. Kurchatov
In September 1942, I.V. Kurchatov was only 39 years old; by the age standards of science, he was a young scientist next to Ioffe and Kapitsa. It was at this time that Igor Vasilyevich was appointed to the post of project manager. All nuclear power plants in Russia and plutonium reactors of this period were created within the framework of the nuclear project, which was led by Kurchatov until 1960.
From the point of view of today, it is impossible to imagine that precisely when 60% of industry was destroyed in the occupied territories, when the main population of the country was working for the front, the leadership of the USSR made a decision that predetermined the development of nuclear energy in the future.
After assessing intelligence reports on the state of affairs with work on atomic nuclear physics in Germany, Great Britain, and the USA, the extent of the lag became clear to Kurchatov. He began to collect scientists across the country and active fronts who could be involved in the creation of nuclear potential.
The lack of uranium, graphite, heavy water, and the lack of a cyclotron did not stop the scientist. Work, both theoretical and practical, resumed in Moscow. A high level of secrecy was determined by the GKO (State Defense Committee). To produce weapons-grade plutonium, a reactor (“boiler” in Kurchatov’s own terminology) was built. Work was underway to enrich uranium.
Lagging behind the United States from 1942 to 1949
On September 2, 1942, in the United States, at the world's first nuclear reactor, a controlled nuclear reaction was carried out. By this time, in the USSR, apart from the theoretical developments of scientists and intelligence data, there was practically nothing.
It became clear that the country would not be able to catch up with the United States in a short time. To prepare (save) personnel, create the prerequisites for the rapid development of uranium enrichment processes, the creation of a nuclear reactor for the production of weapons-grade plutonium, and the restoration of the operation of factories for the production of pure graphite - these were tasks that had to be done during the war and post-war times.
The occurrence of a nuclear reaction is associated with the release of a colossal amount of thermal energy. US scientists - the first creators of the atomic bomb - used this as an additional damaging effect during the explosion.
Nuclear power plants of the world
Today, nuclear energy, although it produces a colossal amount of electricity, is widespread in a limited number of countries. This is due to the huge capital investments in the construction of nuclear power plants, from geological exploration, construction, creation of protection and ending with employee training. Payback can occur in tens of years, provided that the station continues to operate continuously.
The feasibility of constructing a nuclear power plant is determined, as a rule, by national governments (naturally, after considering various options). In the context of the development of industrial potential, in the absence of our own internal reserves of energy resources in large quantities or their high cost, preference is given to the construction of nuclear power plants.
By the end of 2014, nuclear reactors were operating in 31 countries around the world. The construction of nuclear power plants has begun in Belarus and the UAE.
No. | A country | Number of operating nuclear power plants | Number of operating reactors | Generated power |
Argentina | ||||
Brazil | ||||
Bulgaria | ||||
Great Britain | ||||
Germany | ||||
Netherlands | ||||
Pakistan | ||||
Slovakia | ||||
Slovenia | ||||
Finland | ||||
Switzerland | ||||
South Korea | ||||
Nuclear power plants in Russia
Today, ten nuclear power plants operate in the Russian Federation.
NPP name | Number of working blocks | Reactor type | Installed capacity, MW |
Balakovskaya | |||
Beloyarskaya | BN-600, BN-800 | ||
Bilibinskaya | |||
Kalininskaya | |||
Kola | |||
Leningradskaya | |||
Novovoronezhskaya | VVER-440, VVER-1000 | ||
Rostovskaya | VVER-1000/320 | ||
Smolenskaya |
Today, Russian nuclear power plants are part of the Rosatom State Corporation, which unites all structural divisions of the industry from uranium mining and enrichment and nuclear fuel production to the operation and construction of nuclear power plants. In terms of power generated by nuclear power plants, Russia is in second place in Europe after France.
Nuclear energy in Ukraine
Ukraine's nuclear power plants were built during the Soviet Union. The total installed capacity of Ukrainian nuclear power plants is comparable to Russian ones.
NPP name | Number of working blocks | Reactor type | Installed capacity, MW |
Zaporozhye | |||
Rivne | VVER-440,VVER-1000 | ||
Khmelnitskaya | |||
South Ukrainian |
Before the collapse of the USSR, nuclear energy in Ukraine was integrated into a single industry. In the post-Soviet period, before the events of 2014, there were industrial enterprises in Ukraine that produced components for Russian nuclear power plants. Due to the breakdown in industrial relations between the Russian Federation and Ukraine, the launches of power units being built in Russia, planned for 2014 and 2015, have been delayed.
Nuclear power plants in Ukraine operate on fuel rods (fuel elements with nuclear fuel, where the nuclear fission reaction occurs), manufactured in the Russian Federation. Ukraine’s desire to switch to American fuel almost led to an accident at the South Ukrainian Nuclear Power Plant in 2012.
By 2015, the state concern “Nuclear Fuel”, which includes the Eastern Mining and Processing Plant (uranium ore mining), had not yet been able to organize a solution to the issue of producing its own fuel rods.
Prospects for nuclear energy
After 1986, when the Chernobyl accident occurred, nuclear power plants were shut down in many countries. Improving the level of safety brought the nuclear energy industry out of stagnation. Until 2011, when the accident occurred at the Japanese Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant as a result of the tsunami, nuclear energy was developing steadily.
Today, constant (both minor and major) accidents at nuclear power plants will slow down decision-making on the construction or reactivation of installations. The attitude of the Earth's population to the problem of generating electricity through a nuclear reaction can be defined as cautiously pessimistic.
Everything is very simple. In a nuclear reactor, Uranium-235 decays, releasing a huge amount of thermal energy, it boils water, steam under pressure turns a turbine, which rotates an electric generator, which generates electricity.
Science knows of at least one naturally occurring nuclear reactor. It is located in the Oklo uranium deposit in Gabon. True, it had already cooled down one and a half billion years ago.
Uranium-235 is one of the isotopes of uranium. It differs from simple uranium in that its nucleus is missing 3 neutrons, causing the nucleus to become less stable and break into two when a neutron hits it at high speed. In this case, another 2-3 neutrons are released, which can enter another Uranium-235 nucleus and split it. And so on down the chain. This is called a nuclear reaction.
Controlled reaction
If you do not control the nuclear chain reaction and it goes too quickly, you will get a real nuclear explosion. Therefore, the process must be carefully monitored and the uranium must not be allowed to decay too quickly. To do this, nuclear fuel in metal tubes is placed in a moderator - a substance that slows down neutrons and converts their kinetic energy into heat.
To control the reaction rate, rods of neutron-absorbing material are immersed in the moderator. When these rods are raised, they capture fewer neutrons and the reaction speeds up. If the rods are lowered, the reaction will slow down again.
A matter of technology
The huge pipes in nuclear power plants are not actually pipes at all, but cooling towers - towers for rapid cooling of steam.
At the moment of decay, the core splits into two parts, which fly apart at breakneck speed. But they don’t fly far - they hit neighboring atoms, and the kinetic energy turns into thermal energy.
Then this heat is used to heat the water, turning it into steam, the steam turns the turbine, and the turbine turns the generator, which generates electricity, just like in a conventional thermal power plant running on coal.
It's funny, but all this nuclear physics, uranium isotopes, nuclear chain reactions - all in order to boil water.
For cleanliness
Nuclear energy is used not only in nuclear power plants. There are ships and submarines powered by nuclear energy. In the 50s, nuclear cars, planes and trains were even developed.
As a result of the operation of a nuclear reactor, radioactive waste is generated. Some of them can be recycled for further use, while others must be kept in special storage facilities so that they do not cause harm to humans and the environment.
Despite this, nuclear energy is now one of the most environmentally friendly. Nuclear power plants produce no emissions, require very little fuel, take up little space, and are very safe when used correctly.
But after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, many countries suspended the development of nuclear energy. Although, for example, in France almost 80 percent of energy is generated by nuclear power plants.
In the 2000s, due to the high price of oil, everyone remembered nuclear energy. There are developments in compact nuclear power plants that are safe, can operate for decades and do not require maintenance.
Nuclear energy is one of the most developing areas of industry, which is dictated by the constant increase in electricity consumption. Many countries have their own sources of energy production using “peaceful atoms”.
Map of nuclear power plants in Russia (RF)
Russia is included in this number. The history of Russian nuclear power plants begins back in 1948, when the inventor of the Soviet atomic bomb I.V. Kurchatov initiated the design of the first nuclear power plant on the territory of the then Soviet Union. Nuclear power plants in Russia originate from the construction of the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, which became not only the first in Russia, but the first nuclear power plant in the world.
Russia is a unique country that has full-cycle nuclear energy technology, which means all stages, from ore mining to the final production of electricity. At the same time, thanks to its large territories, Russia has a sufficient supply of uranium, both in the form of the earth’s subsoil and in the form of weapons equipment.
Nowadays nuclear power plants in Russia includes 10 operating facilities that provide a capacity of 27 GW (GigaWatt), which is approximately 18% of the country's energy mix. Modern development of technology makes it possible to make nuclear power plants in Russia environmentally friendly, despite the fact that the use of nuclear energy is the most dangerous production from the point of view of industrial safety.
The map of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in Russia includes not only operating plants, but also those under construction, of which there are about 10. At the same time, those under construction include not only full-fledged nuclear power plants, but also promising developments in the form of creating a floating nuclear power plant, which is characterized by mobility.
The list of nuclear power plants in Russia is as follows:
The current state of nuclear energy in Russia allows us to talk about the presence of great potential, which in the foreseeable future can be realized in the creation and design of new types of reactors, allowing the generation of large volumes of energy at lower costs.
10.7% of the world's electricity generation annually comes from nuclear power plants. Along with thermal power plants and hydroelectric power stations, they work to provide humanity with light and heat, allow them to use electrical appliances and make our lives more convenient and simpler. It just so happens that today the words “nuclear power plant” are associated with global disasters and explosions. Ordinary people do not have the slightest idea about the operation of a nuclear power plant and its structure, but even the most unenlightened have heard and are frightened by the incidents in Chernobyl and Fukushima.
What is a nuclear power plant? How do they work? How dangerous are nuclear power plants? Don't believe rumors and myths, let's find out!
What is a nuclear power plant?
On July 16, 1945, energy was extracted from a uranium nucleus for the first time at a military test site in the United States. The powerful explosion of an atomic bomb, which caused a huge number of casualties, became the prototype of a modern and absolutely peaceful source of electricity.
Electricity was first produced using a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951 in the state of Idaho in the USA. To check its functionality, the generator was connected to 4 incandescent lamps; unexpectedly for everyone, the lamps lit up. From that moment on, humanity began to use the energy of a nuclear reactor to produce electricity.
The world's first nuclear power plant was launched in Obninsk in the USSR in 1954. Its power was only 5 megawatts.
What is a nuclear power plant? A nuclear power plant is a nuclear installation that produces energy using a nuclear reactor. A nuclear reactor runs on nuclear fuel, most often uranium.
The operating principle of a nuclear installation is based on the fission reaction of uranium neutrons, which, colliding with each other, are divided into new neutrons, which, in turn, also collide and also fission. This reaction is called a chain reaction, and it underlies nuclear power. This entire process generates heat, which heats the water to a scorching hot state (320 degrees Celsius). Then the water turns into steam, the steam rotates the turbine, it drives an electric generator, which produces electricity.
The construction of nuclear power plants today is carried out at a rapid pace. The main reason for the increase in the number of nuclear power plants in the world is the limited reserves of organic fuel; simply put, gas and oil reserves are running out, they are needed for industrial and municipal needs, and uranium and plutonium, which act as fuel for nuclear power plants, are needed in small amounts; their reserves are still sufficient .
What is a nuclear power plant? It's not just electricity and heat. Along with generating electricity, nuclear power plants are also used for desalination of water. For example, there is such a nuclear power plant in Kazakhstan.
What fuel is used at nuclear power plants?
In practice, nuclear power plants can use several substances capable of generating nuclear electricity; modern nuclear power plant fuels are uranium, thorium and plutonium.
Thorium fuel is not currently used in nuclear power plants, because it is more difficult to convert it into fuel elements, or fuel rods in short.
Fuel rods are metal tubes that are placed inside a nuclear reactor. There are radioactive substances inside fuel rods. These tubes can be called nuclear fuel storage facilities. The second reason for the rare use of thorium is its complex and expensive processing after use at nuclear power plants.
Plutonium fuel is also not used in nuclear power engineering, because this substance has a very complex chemical composition, which they still have not learned how to use correctly.
Uranium fuel
The main substance that produces energy at nuclear power plants is uranium. Uranium today is mined in three ways: open pits, closed mines, and underground leaching, by drilling mines. The last method is especially interesting. To extract uranium by leaching, a solution of sulfuric acid is poured into underground wells, it is saturated with uranium and pumped back out.
The largest uranium reserves in the world are located in Australia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Canada. The richest deposits are in Canada, Zaire, France and the Czech Republic. In these countries, up to 22 kilograms of uranium raw material are obtained from a ton of ore. For comparison, in Russia a little more than one and a half kilograms of uranium is obtained from one ton of ore.
Uranium mining sites are non-radioactive. In its pure form, this substance is of little danger to humans; a much greater danger is the radioactive colorless gas radon, which is formed during the natural decay of uranium.
Uranium cannot be used in the form of ore in nuclear power plants; it cannot produce any reactions. First, uranium raw materials are processed into powder - uranium oxide, and only after that it becomes uranium fuel. Uranium powder is turned into metal “tablets” - it is pressed into small neat flasks, which are fired for 24 hours at monstrously high temperatures of more than 1500 degrees Celsius. It is these uranium pellets that enter nuclear reactors, where they begin to interact with each other and, ultimately, provide people with electricity.
About 10 million uranium pellets are working simultaneously in one nuclear reactor.
Of course, uranium pellets are not simply thrown into the reactor. They are placed in metal tubes made of zirconium alloys - fuel rods, the tubes are connected to each other into bundles and form fuel assemblies - fuel assemblies. It is FA that can rightfully be called nuclear power plant fuel.
Nuclear power plant fuel reprocessing
After about a year of use, the uranium in nuclear reactors needs to be replaced. Fuel elements are cooled for several years and sent for chopping and dissolution. As a result of chemical extraction, uranium and plutonium are released, which are reused and used to make fresh nuclear fuel.
The decay products of uranium and plutonium are used to manufacture sources of ionizing radiation. They are used in medicine and industry.
Everything that remains after these manipulations is sent to a hot furnace and glass is made from the remains, which is then stored in special storage facilities. Why glass? It will be very difficult to remove the remains of radioactive elements that can harm the environment.
Nuclear power plant news - a new method of disposing of radioactive waste has recently appeared. So-called fast nuclear reactors or fast neutron reactors have been created, which operate on recycled nuclear fuel residues. According to scientists, the remains of nuclear fuel, which are currently stored in storage facilities, are capable of providing fuel for fast neutron reactors for 200 years.
In addition, new fast reactors can operate on uranium fuel, which is made from 238 uranium; this substance is not used in conventional nuclear power plants, because It is easier for today’s nuclear power plants to process 235 and 233 uranium, of which there is little left in nature. Thus, new reactors are an opportunity to use huge deposits of 238 uranium, which no one had used before.
How is a nuclear power plant built?
What is a nuclear power plant? What is this jumble of gray buildings that most of us have only seen on TV? How durable and safe are these structures? What is the structure of a nuclear power plant? At the heart of any nuclear power plant is the reactor building, next to it is the turbine room and the safety building.
The construction of nuclear power plants is carried out in accordance with regulations, regulations and safety requirements for facilities working with radioactive substances. A nuclear station is a full-fledged strategic object of the state. Therefore, the thickness of the walls and reinforced concrete reinforcement structures in the reactor building is several times greater than that of standard structures. Thus, the premises of nuclear power plants can withstand magnitude 8 earthquakes, tornadoes, tsunamis, tornadoes and plane crashes.
The reactor building is crowned with a dome, which is protected by internal and external concrete walls. The inner concrete wall is covered with a steel sheet, which in the event of an accident should create a closed air space and not release radioactive substances into the air.
Each nuclear power plant has its own cooling pool. Uranium tablets that have already served their useful life are placed there. After the uranium fuel is removed from the reactor, it remains extremely radioactive, so that reactions inside the fuel rods stop occurring, it must take from 3 to 10 years (depending on the design of the reactor in which the fuel was located). In the cooling pools, the uranium pellets cool down and reactions stop occurring inside them.
The technological diagram of a nuclear power plant, or simply put, the design diagram of nuclear power plants is of several types, as well as the characteristics of a nuclear power plant and the thermal diagram of a nuclear power plant, it depends on the type of nuclear reactor that is used in the process of generating electricity.
Floating nuclear power plant
We already know what a nuclear power plant is, but Russian scientists came up with the idea to take a nuclear power plant and make it mobile. To date, the project is almost completed. This design was called a floating nuclear power plant. According to the plan, the floating nuclear power plant will be able to provide electricity to a city with a population of up to two hundred thousand people. Its main advantage is the ability to move by sea. The construction of a nuclear power plant capable of movement is currently underway only in Russia.
Nuclear power plant news is the imminent launch of the world's first floating nuclear power plant, which is designed to provide energy to the port city of Pevek, located in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The first floating nuclear power plant is called "Akademik Lomonosov", a mini-nuclear power plant is being built in St. Petersburg and is planned to be launched in 2016 - 2019. The presentation of the afloat nuclear power plant took place in 2015, then the builders presented an almost finished project for the floating nuclear power plant.
The floating nuclear power plant is designed to provide electricity to the most remote cities with access to the sea. The Akademik Lomonosov nuclear reactor is not as powerful as that of land-based nuclear power plants, but has a service life of 40 years, which means that the residents of small Pevek will not suffer from a lack of electricity for almost half a century.
A floating nuclear power plant can be used not only as a source of heat and electricity, but also for desalination of water. According to calculations, it can produce from 40 to 240 cubic meters of fresh water per day.
The cost of the first block of a floating nuclear power plant was 16 and a half billion rubles; as we see, the construction of nuclear power plants is not a cheap pleasure.
Nuclear power plant safety
After the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the Fukushima accident in 2011, the words nuclear power plant cause fear and panic in people. In fact, modern nuclear power plants are equipped with the latest technology, special safety rules have been developed, and in general, nuclear power plant protection consists of 3 levels:
At the first level, normal operation of the nuclear power plant must be ensured. The safety of a nuclear power plant largely depends on the correct location for the nuclear plant, a well-created design, and the fulfillment of all conditions during the construction of the building. Everything must comply with regulations, safety instructions and plans.
At the second level, it is important to prevent normal operation of the nuclear power plant from transitioning into an emergency situation. For this purpose, there are special devices that monitor the temperature and pressure in the reactors and report the slightest changes in the readings.
If the first and second levels of protection do not work, the third is used - a direct response to an emergency situation. Sensors detect the accident and react to it themselves - the reactors are shut down, radiation sources are localized, the core is cooled, and the accident is reported.
Of course, a nuclear power plant requires special attention to the safety system, both at the construction stage and at the operation stage. Failure to comply with strict regulations can have very serious consequences, but today most of the responsibility for the safety of nuclear power plants falls on computer systems, and the human factor is almost completely excluded. Taking into account the high accuracy of modern machines, you can be confident in the safety of nuclear power plants.
Experts assure that it is impossible to receive a large dose of radioactive radiation in stably operating modern nuclear power plants or while being near them. Even nuclear power plant workers, who, by the way, measure the level of radiation received every day, are exposed to no more radiation than ordinary residents of large cities.
Nuclear reactors
What is a nuclear power plant? This is primarily a working nuclear reactor. The process of energy generation takes place inside it. FAs are placed in a nuclear reactor, where uranium neutrons react with each other, where they transfer heat to water, and so on.
Inside a specific reactor building there are the following structures: a water supply source, a pump, a generator, a steam turbine, a condenser, deaerators, a purifier, a valve, a heat exchanger, the reactor itself and a pressure regulator.
Reactors come in several types, depending on what substance acts as a moderator and coolant in the device. It is most likely that a modern nuclear power plant will have thermal neutron reactors:
- water-water (with ordinary water as both a neutron moderator and coolant);
- graphite-water (moderator - graphite, coolant - water);
- graphite-gas (moderator – graphite, coolant – gas);
- heavy water (moderator - heavy water, coolant - ordinary water).
NPP efficiency and NPP power
The overall efficiency of a nuclear power plant (efficiency factor) with a pressurized water reactor is about 33%, with a graphite water reactor - about 40%, and a heavy water reactor - about 29%. The economic viability of a nuclear power plant depends on the efficiency of the nuclear reactor, the energy intensity of the reactor core, the installed capacity utilization factor per year, etc.
NPP news – scientists promise to soon increase the efficiency of nuclear power plants by one and a half times, to 50%. This will happen if fuel assemblies, or fuel assemblies, which are directly placed into a nuclear reactor, are made not from zirconium alloys, but from a composite. The problems of nuclear power plants today are that zirconium is not heat-resistant enough, it cannot withstand very high temperatures and pressures, therefore the efficiency of nuclear power plants is low, while the composite can withstand temperatures above a thousand degrees Celsius.
Experiments on using the composite as a shell for uranium pellets are being conducted in the USA, France and Russia. Scientists are working to increase the strength of the material and its introduction into nuclear energy.
What is a nuclear power plant? Nuclear power plants are the world's electrical power. The total electrical capacity of nuclear power plants around the world is 392,082 MW. The characteristics of a nuclear power plant depend primarily on its power. The most powerful nuclear power plant in the world is located in France; the capacity of the Sivo NPP (each unit) is more than one and a half thousand MW (megawatt). The power of other nuclear power plants ranges from 12 MW in mini-nuclear power plants (Bilibino NPP, Russia) to 1382 MW (Flanmanville nuclear plant, France). At the construction stage are the Flamanville block with a capacity of 1650 MW, and the Shin-Kori nuclear power plants of South Korea with a nuclear power plant capacity of 1400 MW.
NPP cost
Nuclear power plant, what is it? This is a lot of money. Today people need any means of generating electricity. Water, thermal and nuclear power plants are being built everywhere in more or less developed countries. Construction of a nuclear power plant is not an easy process; it requires large expenses and capital investments; most often, financial resources are drawn from state budgets.
The cost of a nuclear power plant includes capital costs - expenses for site preparation, construction, putting equipment into operation (the amounts of capital costs are prohibitive, for example, one steam generator at a nuclear power plant costs more than 9 million dollars). In addition, nuclear power plants also require operating costs, which include the purchase of fuel, costs for its disposal, etc.
For many reasons, the official cost of a nuclear power plant is only approximate; today, a nuclear power station will cost approximately 21-25 billion euros. To build one nuclear unit from scratch will cost approximately $8 million. On average, the payback period for one station is 28 years, the service life is 40 years. As you can see, nuclear power plants are quite an expensive pleasure, but, as we found out, incredibly necessary and useful for you and me.
