home Instagram Theories of international relations and trade in brief. Basic theories of international trade. The theory of foreign trade activities of firms

Theories of international relations and trade in brief. Basic theories of international trade. The theory of foreign trade activities of firms

Foreign trade theories

Foreign trade theories are designed to provide answers to the following questions.

What is the basis of MRI?
What determines the effectiveness of international specialization for individual countries?
What guides firms in their behavior regarding their inclusion in international exchange?

Historically, the first theory of foreign trade is mercantilism (XVI-XVII centuries). This theory was based on the fact that the wealth of a nation is determined by the amount of gold. Therefore, the task of nation states is to sell more and buy less, thus facilitating the movement of gold, which served as world money, from one country to another. Mercantilists viewed international trade as a zero-sum game, where a country's gain inevitably meant the loss of its trading partner. They stressed the need to implement a foreign economic policy that would contribute to the achievement of a positive trade balance.

Classical theories of foreign trade

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages proceeds from the assumption that the welfare of a nation depends on the degree of deepening of the division of labor, including international.

A. Smith came to the conclusion that each country should specialize in the production and export of goods, in the manufacture of which it has absolute advantages, that is, a country in which the production of a certain economic good is cheaper should not only focus on meeting the needs for this good own residents, but also to ensure the export of this good to other countries, in which its production is more expensive. The selection of industries and types of production in which the country will specialize is made not by the government, but by the invisible hand of the market. Each nation benefits from international trade, since it necessarily has a certain absolute advantage in the production of certain economic benefits.

Foreign trade is a traditional and more developed form of international economic relations. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of IEE.

For any country, the role of foreign trade is difficult to overestimate. According to J. Sachs, "the state success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. Not a single country has yet managed to create a healthy economy, isolating itself from the world economic program." Trade gives countries the opportunity to specialize in several key areas of the economy, as they have the opportunity to import products that they do not produce themselves. In addition, trade facilitates the diffusion of new ideas and technologies.

Modern theories of international trade have their own history. The question is why do countries trade with each other? - was put by economists simultaneously with the emergence at the beginning of the 17th century. the first schools of economic thought.

International trade is a form of communication between commodity producers of different countries, arising on the basis of MRI, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. International trade is the aggregate trade turnover between all countries of the world. Each state faces a choice in determining the main non-state national foreign trade policy, which can be broadly defined as a choice between free trade and protectionism. The need for choice involves the study of the theory of this issue. The main classical theories of international trade are:

1. Mercantilist theory.

2. The theory of absolute advantages.

3. The theory of comparative advantage.

4. The theory of the ratio of factors of production and how it is refuted the Leontief paradox.

Mercantilist theory. It arose in the era of great geographical discoveries, when the discovery of new lands with their natural resources (the main one was gold) led to the seizure of territories and the formation of colonies. The national economies of Europe were strengthened by capturing new territories and dividing spheres of influence.

Mercantilists (Thomas Man (1571-1641), Charlie Davinant, John Baptiste Colbert, William Petty) were the first to propose a coherent theory of international trade. They believed that the wealth of countries depends on the quality of gold and silver that they have, and believe that:

1) should output more goods than input, this will provide an inflow of gold as payments, which will increase domestic production, domestic spending and increase the level of employment of its population.

2) it is necessary to regulate foreign trade in such a way as to increase the share of exports and reduce the share of imports; the purpose of such regulation is to obtain a positive trade balance through tariffs, quotas and other trade policy instruments.

3) the need to prohibit or strictly organize the export of raw materials and allow duty-free import of raw materials. This should have made it possible to accumulate gold reserves in the country and keep export prices for finished products low.

4) it is necessary to prohibit all trade of the colonies with countries other than the metropolis. This situation, of course, will ensure only the metropolis the right to sell colonial goods abroad, and the colonies will turn into suppliers of raw materials and supplies.

According to the theory of mercantilists, the wealth of one country can be increased only by impoverishing another, since the growth of wealth is possible only through redistribution. In order to provide the state with a worthy place in the world, there is a strong state machine, which includes the army, military and merchant navy and which can provide superiority over other countries.

One of the earliest critics of the mercantilist theory was the English economist David Hume. (The influx of gold as a result of a positive trade balance will increase the supply of money within the country and will lead to higher wages and prices. As a result of price increases, the country's competitiveness has decreased, etc.).

The theory of absolute advantages. (Chief representative Adam Smith). According to this theory, international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each of the countries produces at the lowest cost than the partner country. Countries export those goods in the production of which they have advantages, and import those in the production of which the advantage belongs to their trading partners. In accordance with the views of A. Smith:

1) the government should not interfere in foreign trade, but should support the free trade regime;

2) states and individuals should specialize in the production of those goods in the production of which they have advantages, and trade them in exchange for goods, the production of which they do not have;

3) foreign trade stimulates the development of labor productivity by expanding the market outside the state;

4) export is a positive factor for the economy, because ensures the sale of surplus products; export subsidies are a tax on the population and lead to higher domestic prices and should therefore be abolished.

The theory of absolute advantages is that countries export those goods that they produce at a lower cost and import those goods that are produced by other countries at a lower cost.

Comparative advantage theory.Ch. representative - David Ricardo. The theory of comparative advantage - is that countries specialize in the production of those goods that they will produce at relatively lower costs compared to other countries. In this case, trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than in the other. The price of an imported product is determined by the price of the product that needs to be exported to pay for imports, so the final price ratio in trade is determined by the domestic demand for the goods in one of the trading countries. As a result of trading on the basis of comparative advantage, one of the countries receives a positive economic effect called trade gain. Gains from trade are the economic benefits that each of the countries participating in the trade obtains if they specialize in the trade of a commodity in the production of which they have a relative advantage.

The theory of the ratio of factors of production.(Representatives - Henscher and Olin). The essence is the difference in the relative prices of goods in different countries, and therefore, economic trade between them is explained by the different relative endowment of countries with factors of production. Each country exports those goods for the production of which it has a relatively surplus of factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative lack of factors of production. International trade leads to the equalization of the absolute and relative prices not only for goods, but also for factors of production in trading countries.

The theory of different relative endowments with factors of production as a basis for international trade is presented in the form of two interrelated theorems: the Heckshire-Ohlin theories and the theories of price equalization for factors of production (P. Samuelson).

The Leontief paradox.Numerous empirical tests have challenged the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

Leontief's paradox is that, contrary to theory, labor-intensive countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-saturated countries export labor-intensive ones. However, the Leontief paradox left numerous questions unanswered, and other empirical studies that took into account the skill composition of the workforce and covered a wider range of countries confirmed the validity of the theory of comparative advantage. But the Leontief paradox continues to serve as a serious warning against the straightforward use of the Heckshire-Ohlin theory.

It relies on the benefits it brings to the participating countries. International trade theory provides insight into what lies at the heart of these gains from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, and improve the level of well-being of the population.

Many renowned economists have dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's theory of comparative advantages, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief paradox, The theory of the life cycle of a product, M. Porter's theory, Rybchinsky's theorem, and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory.

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on active government intervention in economic activity. Direction representatives: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was coined by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade originated during the period of initial capital accumulation and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

In this case, trade was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of mercantilists, called protectionism, boiled down to creating barriers to international trade, protecting domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulating exports and restricting imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

The need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

Recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its welfare;

Money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of the commodity mass;

Protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;

Restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's absolute advantage theory.

In his study of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith in polemics with mercantilists formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country must specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. The rejection of the production of goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's absolute advantage theory suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, since the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country as well as in the skill of the labor force; long periods of homogeneous production provide incentives to develop more efficient working methods.

Natural advantages for a given country: climate; territory; resources. The acquired advantages for a given country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

Comparative advantage theory D. Ricardo and D.S. Mill.

In his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed between countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

According to Ricardo's version, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity (imputed) costs are lower. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (imputed) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute production costs of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently D.S. Mill in his work "Foundations of Political Economy" gave an explanation of the price of exchange. According to Mill, the exchange price is set according to the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of exports of each country makes it possible to pay for the aggregate of its imports — this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive, along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is different provision of production factors in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the country's abundant factors of production are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, in international trade, there is a tendency to equalize "factor prices"; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the transfer of factors of production beyond national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials entering developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting towards mutual trade of "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

The Leontief paradox.

These are studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period, the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital. The essence of Leontyev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, and labor-intensive ones could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decline.

The solution to the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the goods is much lower than in the export supplies of the United States. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity this leads to a significant influence of the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to an increase in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle theory.

It was put forward and substantiated by R. Verna, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product goes through a cycle consisting of five stages from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it:

Product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. At this time, sales are zero, and costs are rising.

Market launch. There is no profit due to high marketing costs, sales are slowly growing;

Rapid market conquest, increased profits;

Maturity. Sales growth is slowing as the bulk of consumers are already attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs of marketing activities to protect goods from competition;

Decline. A decline in sales and a decline in profits.

M. Porter's theory.

This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter's point of view, that determines success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. The explanation of a country's competitive advantage is based on the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovation).

Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

The influence of the government on factor conditions;

Government influence on demand conditions;

Government impact on related and supporting industries;

The influence of the government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Sufficient competition in the domestic market is a serious incentive for success in the global market. Artificial domination of enterprises with the help of state support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. M. Porter's theoretical premises served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to improve the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production grows, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products in which this increased factor is intensively used, and to reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use a fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must be constant.

Factor prices can only remain constant if the ratio of factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only take place with an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a reduction in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use together with a growing factor in an expanding industry. ...

The theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

In the middle of the XX century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, presenting that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardo model with additions of Heckscher and Ohlin, and see trade not only as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means of narrowing the development gap between countries.

Each country seeks to optimize its trade relations with other countries. This is facilitated by the theory of international trade, which describes its benefits for a particular country based on factor advantages.

An attempt to determine the meaning of foreign trade, to formulate its goals was made in the economic doctrine of mercantilists at the stage of the decline of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations (XV-XVII1 centuries). In accordance with the thesis about the decisive role of the sphere of circulation, which underlies their views, the country's wealth lies in the possession of values, primarily in the form of gold and precious metals. Representatives of mercantilism T. Maine, A. Montchretien believed that the increase in gold reserves is the most important task of the state, and foreign trade should, above all, ensure the receipt of gold. This is achieved by the excess of exports of goods over their imports, an active trade balance.

The main theories of international trade were laid down in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantage
A. Smith in his book "Investigation of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776) formulated the theory of absolute advantage and showed that countries should be interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers.

The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is as follows: if a country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. These absolute advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions or the presence of huge natural resources. On the other hand, the advantages in the production of various products (primarily in the manufacturing industries) depend on the prevailing production conditions: technology, qualifications of workers, organization of production, etc.

In the absence of foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and the amount that it produces. The prices of these goods on the market are determined by the national costs of their production.

The situation is different in the presence of foreign trade. Due to differences in the supply of factors of production, technologies used, qualifications of the labor force, etc., domestic prices for the same goods in different countries are always different. For foreign trade to be profitable, the price of a product on the external market must be higher than the domestic price of the same product in the exporting country. The benefit that countries receive from foreign trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which may be due to the specialization of production.

Conclusion: each country should specialize in the production of the product for which it has an exclusive (absolute) advantage.

D. Ricardo's theory of relative advantage

D. Ricardo in his work "The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817) proved that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

To illustrate the relative advantages, Ricardo took two countries - England and Portugal, two goods - wine and cloth, and took into account only one factor - national differences in values \u200b\u200bdue to labor costs. He conventionally measured the costs of production by working time.

In this example, wine and cloth production in Portugal is absolutely more efficient than in England. Based on the logic of common sense, it can be argued that if production in a given country (Portugal) is more efficient, goods are cheaper, then there is no reason to buy more expensive goods in a country (England), where their production is more expensive. However, this is at first glance. If we follow the principle of comparative advantage, then we must compare not the absolute, but the relative effect. In Portugal, the cost of producing cloth is 2: 1 of the cost of wine production, and in England it is 4: 3, which is relatively less.

With wine, the situation is the opposite. The efficiency of wine production in Portugal compared to the production of cloth is higher than in England (1/2< 3/4). Следовательно, Португалии из соображений эффективности национальной экономики выгодней сосредоточить труд и капитал в виноделии, заменив производство сукна на его импорт из Англии. Англии по тем же соображениям выгоднее специализироваться на производстве сукна, импортируя вино из Португалии.

Heckscher-Ohlin's theory of international trade

D. Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage does not answer the question: "What causes differences in costs between countries?" Swedish economist E. Heckscher and his student B. Olin tried to answer this question. In their opinion, differences in costs between countries are mainly due to the fact that the relative endowments of countries with factors of production are different.

In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade, the prices of factors of production are equalized in the process of international trade. The essence of the alignment mechanism is as follows. Initially, the price of factors of production (wages, interest on loans, rent, etc.) will be relatively low for those that are abundant in a given country, and high for those that are scarce. The specialization of a country in the production of capital-intensive goods leads to an intensive flow of capital into export industries. The demand for capital increases in comparison with its supply and, accordingly, its price (interest on capital) increases. On the contrary, the specialization of other countries in the production of labor-intensive goods leads to the movement of significant labor resources to the corresponding industries, and the price of labor (wages) increases accordingly.

Thus, in accordance with this model, both groups of countries are gradually losing their initial advantages, and their levels of development are leveling off. This creates conditions for expanding the range of export industries, their deeper inclusion in the international division of labor, taking into account the comparative advantages that have arisen at the new level of their development.

The Leontief paradox

In the mid-1950s, the famous American economist of Russian origin Vasily Leontiev attempted to empirically test the main conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and came to paradoxical conclusions. Using the input-output input-output model built on the basis of data on the US economy for 1947, V. Leontyev proved that relatively more labor-intensive goods prevailed in American exports, while capital-intensive goods prevailed in imports. This empirically obtained result contradicted what was proposed by the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, and therefore was called the "Leontief paradox". Subsequent studies have confirmed the presence of this paradox in the postwar period not only for the United States, but also for other countries (Japan, India, etc.).

Numerous attempts to explain this paradox made it possible to develop and enrich the Heckscher-Ohlin theory by taking into account additional circumstances affecting international specialization, among which we can note: heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily labor force, which can differ significantly in skill level; quality of management decisions; state foreign trade policy, etc.

Stolper-Samuelson theorem

Wolfgang F. Stolper and P. Samuelson proved that under certain prerequisites, foreign trade divides society into those who remain in net gains and those who bear losses.

Prerequisites: the country produces two goods (eg wheat and cloth) using two factors of production (eg land and labor); none of the goods is used to produce the other; there is absolute competition; the supply of factors is given; for the production of one of the goods (wheat), the land is intensively used, and the second (cloth) is labor-intensive both in terms of foreign trade and without it; both factors can move between sectors (but not between countries); the establishment of trade relations leads to an increase in the relative price of one of the goods (for example, wheat).

The Stolper-Samuelson theorem: under the conditions listed above, the establishment of trade relations and free trade inevitably lead to an increase in the remuneration of a factor that is intensively used in the production of a commodity, the price of which is growing (land), and a decrease in the remuneration of a factor that is intensively used in the production of a commodity, the price of which falls (labor), regardless of what is the structure of consumption of these goods by owners of factors of production.

Jones amplification effect

According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, international trade leads to an increase in the price of a factor that is intensively used to produce a commodity, the price of which is increasing, and a decrease in the price of a factor that is intensively used to produce a commodity, the price of which is falling. However, the question arises: is the increase (or decrease) in the price of a factor of production proportional to the increase (or decrease) in the price of the goods produced with its help?

Economic analysis shows that the increase or decrease in the price of factors of production occurs to a greater extent than the price of the goods produced with their help increases or decreases. The effect of this effect is called the Jones amplification effect.

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, formed from the foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose during the emergence of the world market in the 16th and 18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy in the modern era.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise The Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.

Benefits of countries' participation in international trade:

the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, creation of opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, an increase in the degree of equipment utilization, an increase in the efficiency of the introduction of new technologies;
an increase in exports leads to an increase in employment;
international competition makes it necessary to improve enterprises;
export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation for industrial development.

International trade theories

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. International trade theory provides insight into what underlies these gains from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, and increase the level of well-being of the population.

Many renowned economists have dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade are Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's theory of comparative advantages. and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on active government intervention in economic activity. Direction representatives: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was coined by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. Mercantilist theory of international trade originated during the period of initial capital accumulation and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its welfare;
money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of commodity mass;
protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;
restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's absolute advantage theory. In his study of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith in polemics with mercantilists formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Natural advantages for a given country: climate; territory; resources. The acquired advantages for a given country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantages by D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed between countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not data once and for all, Ricardo argued, so even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative gain is the greatest - this is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo. According to Ricardo's version, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity (imputed) costs are lower. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (imputed) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute production costs of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently, DS Mill in his work "Foundations of Political Economy" gave an explanation of the price at which the exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the exchange price is set according to the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of exports of each country makes it possible to pay for the aggregate of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive, along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is different provision of production factors in countries participating in international trade.

The Leontief paradox. This is the research of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor, rather than capital. The essence of Leontyev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, and labor-intensive ones could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decline. The solution to the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant influence of the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to an increase in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle theory. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product goes through a cycle consisting of five stages from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it:

product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. At this time, sales are zero, and costs are rising.
bringing goods to market. There is no profit due to high marketing costs, sales are slowly growing;
rapid conquest of the market, increased profits;
maturity. Sales growth is slowing as the bulk of consumers are already attracted. Profit level remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs of marketing activities to protect goods from competition;
decline. A decline in sales and a decline in profits.

M. Porter's theory. This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter's point of view, that determines success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. The explanation of a country's competitive advantage is based on the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovation). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

government influence on factor conditions;
government impact on demand conditions;
government impact on related and supporting industries;
the impact of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Sufficient competition in the domestic market is a serious incentive for success in the global market. Artificial dominance of enterprises with the help of state support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision, leading to waste and inefficient use of resources. M. Porter's theoretical premises served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products in which this increased factor is intensively used, and to reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use a fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must be constant. Factor prices can only remain constant if the ratio of factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only take place with an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a reduction in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use together with a growing factor in an expanding industry. ...

The theory of Samuelson and Stolper. In the middle of the XX century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, presenting that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardo model with additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and see trade not only as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means of narrowing the development gap between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of products of labor in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with their export abroad. Import is the purchase of goods from foreign sellers with their import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high rate. Among the main trends in the development of international trade are the following:

1. There is a predominant development of trade in comparison with the branches of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, over the period from the 1950s to the 1990s, the world's GDP grew by about 5 times, and merchandise exports by at least 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $ 30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - at $ 12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% are fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products - about 9%, clothing and textiles - 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographic direction of international trade flows, the role of developed countries and China has increased. However, developing countries (mainly due to the nomination of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from their midst) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade, and by 2001, already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has become apparent. In the 1960s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times that of the United States. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to take the lead in terms of competitiveness. In the same period, it was joined by the "newly industrialized countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States is taking the leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. The export of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. US dollars. The share of the group of goods is 80%, and services - 20% of the total trade in the world.

4. The most important area of \u200b\u200bdevelopment of foreign trade is intra-company trade within the TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within the TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding in several ways. First, it is cross-border supply, for example, distance learning. Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the movement of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third way is a commercial presence, for example, the activity in the country of a foreign bank or restaurant. And the fourth way is the movement of individuals who are providers of services abroad, for example, doctors or teachers. The world's most developed countries are the leaders in trade in services.

Regulation of international trade

The regulation of international trade is subdivided into state regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods of state regulation of international trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods are reduced to the use of customs duties - special taxes levied on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are the fees charged by the state for processing goods and other valuables abroad. Such a fee, called a duty, is included in the price of the product and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the importation of foreign goods into the country; export duties are used less often.

By the form of calculation, duties are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the goods;

b) specific, levied in the form of a certain amount of money from the volume, mass or unit of goods.

The most important purposes of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods in the foreign market at prices lower than those for an identical product in the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity with the help of an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for the implementation of international trade transactions and control over their implementation by the member states of these organizations.

A special role in the regulation of international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
WTO ();
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the principle of the most favored nation (MFN), that is, the most favored nation (MFN) regime is established in the trade of the GATT member countries, which guarantees equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the NSP were established for countries belonging to economic integration groups; for countries that are former colonies that have traditional ties with former metropolises; for border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, the share of "exceptions" accounts for at least 60% of the world trade in finished goods, which deprives the PNB of universality.

The GATT recognizes customs tariffs as the only acceptable means of regulating MT, which are reduced iteratively (from round to round). At present, their average level is 3-5%. But even here there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff means of protection (quotas, export and import licenses, tax incentives). These include cases of application of programs to regulate agricultural production, violations of the balance of payments, implementation of regional development and assistance programs.

The GATT contains the principle of refraining from unilateral actions and making decisions in favor of negotiations and consultations, if such actions (decisions) can lead to restriction of freedom of trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at the negotiation rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight of them. The most significant decisions by which the WTO is guided in the regulation of MT so far were made at the last (eighth) Uruguay round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce the value of customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate MT with products of certain sectors (including agriculture), and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country's foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases, while duties on raw materials are reduced and they are eliminated on certain types of alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products - by only 40% of world imports. The liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But the last and only means of regulation are customs duties.

In the field of anti-dumping measures, the concepts of "legal subsidies" and "acceptable subsidies" were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at environmental protection and regional development, provided that their size is at least 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of its total cost. All others are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included the requirements for the minimum export of goods produced by the joint venture, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO... The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the legal successor to the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the tasks of ensuring freedom of trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called linkages. The meaning of the linkages is that any government decisions to increase the tariff are taken simultaneously (in conjunction with) the decision to liberalize imports of other goods. The WTO is outside the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of the participating countries to comply with the agreements.

GATS. The regulation of international trade in services differs in a certain way. This is due to the fact that services differing in an extreme variety of forms and content do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general tendencies that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account new moments in its development, which are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the world market for services is regulated at four levels: international (global), sectoral (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which entered into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (openness and unity of reading of laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign manufacturers. However, the implementation of these rules is hampered by the peculiarities of services as a product: the absence of the material form of most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that regulating the terms of trade in services means regulating the conditions of their production, and this in turn means regulating the conditions for investing in their production.

The GATS includes three parts: a framework agreement that defines general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries; and a list of national governments' commitments to eliminate restrictions in service industries. Thus, only one regional level falls out of the field of GATS activity.

The GATS Agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types of services: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. The issues of export sale of films and television programs are excluded from the sphere of his activity, which is associated with the fears of certain states (European countries) to lose the originality of their national culture.

Sectoral regulation of international trade in services is also carried out on a global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. In contrast to the GATS, the organizations regulating such services are specialized in nature. For example, civil air transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism - by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), maritime transportation - by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services (as, for example, in the EU) are lifted and restrictions on such trade with third countries can be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, which may include trade in services. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: textbook / EG Guzhva, MI Lesnaya, AV Kondrat'ev, AN Egorov; SPbGASU. - SPb., 2009 .-- 116 p.