The purpose of work activity is... The purpose of work activity. On labor organization

Test

Goals of work. Objectively given and subjectively accepted goals of labor, their varieties

Introduction 3

1. The problem of the subjective significance of work 4

2. Features of the influence of motivation on the formation of work goals 8

4.Comprehension and satisfaction with work 10

5. Characteristics of labor goals 13

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction

The problem of labor goals is quite relevant in modern society. The topic of objective determination and subjective acceptance of labor goals brings researchers closer to the problem of developing a sense of self-esteem for an employee who is justifiably proud of his work. It is the development of self-esteem that is the most important condition for the personal development of a person in work.

But not only the development of an employee’s self-esteem occurs during the adoption of goals. The goal of labor, representing the final result of any activity in general, ensures the construction of a person’s further life program. Depending on the goal, conditions, methods and means of achieving it are selected. Although one cannot help but talk about the influence of objectivity and subjectivity of goals.

The relevance of the work is determined by its goal: identifying the features of the process of objectively given and subjectively accepted goals of work and identifying their varieties.

Job objectives:

Identification of the concept of subjective significance of work;

Determination of the main goals of work;

Identification of the relationship between labor goals and other components of work activity.

1. The problem of the subjective significance of work

Considering the issue of the subjective significance of work immediately raises many difficulties. 1

Firstly, the subjective significance (or, conversely, insignificance) of work can easily be instilled in specific people by interested managers, envious colleagues or manipulative psychologists who are ready to shape anything for the sake of high fees. And then the question arises: to what extent is the idea of ​​​​the importance of work actually “subjective”?

Secondly, the very idea of ​​the subjective significance of work changes over time, often passing through critical periods. For example, a creative worker is always dissatisfied with something in his work, and often considers it “useless to anyone.”

Thirdly, in many cases there really is a “partial significance” of specific work, when an employee, for example, values ​​himself and his work not for the benefits that his work brings to others, but for the fees that he receives for it. And of this he is proud and asserts himself.

Fourthly, a sense of subjective significance can also be based on self-deception, when a person’s mind is already ready to agree that his work is primitive or socially meaningless, but the person simply does not have the strength to admit this to himself. And then, at the level of feelings, he continues as before: to believe in the “significance” of his work both for himself personally and for those around him, etc.

Ruiz S. A. Kuantanilla, B. Vilpert identify the following main components of the concept of “significance of work”: the subjective meaning of work activity; motivation; the place of work in the life of an individual; main roles in work.

The main signs of the importance of work are also highlighted: 2

Subjective understanding, idea of ​​work. Traditionally, the following signs of “labor” or “work” are identified: physical or intellectual stress; goal-directed orientation in the context of a task that has temporal or spatial restrictions; social integration and group interaction; dislike or undesirability of experiencing stress; generating income and ensuring subsistence; the dependence of the volume of goods and services produced on changes in wages; the influence of social norms, including a sense of duty; exchange of labor as a commodity for earnings under exploitative conditions.

Work as the main task of life involves the identification of two types of ideas: 1) work as one of the spheres of activity and 2) work as the basis of life and the basis of “perception of one’s own personality.”

Motivational components of work. There are two groups of characteristics: 1) a “reasonable explanation” of work as a whole (based on an understanding of the significance of work); 2) “preference” for certain aspects of labor (reflects more specific and particular requirements for labor).

Social labor standards require the identification of two main ideas: 1) the obligation to work for the good of society, regardless of basic social norms (religious or any other); 2) the obligation to work is supplemented by standards reflecting the rights and obligations of the employee (based on the assumption of an equivalent, i.e. fair, exchange of labor expended and remuneration).

Dynamic interactions and their role in understanding the significance of work. What is promising is not the “ratings” of motivational factors, but the procedures for comparing one aspect with “ordering the variable values ​​of another aspect.”

The development of production poses the task of studying the problem of the importance of labor in the context of the introduction of new technologies. The introduction of new technologies leads to the emergence of new opportunities - opportunities to combine labor and integrate hitherto separate tasks performed by different workers into one activity. At higher levels it becomes possible to transfer functions to complex mechanisms. In this case, the work becomes less understandable and less “tangible” for the employee. But all this is somewhat compensated by the emergence of other new opportunities: a different organization of labor; a new system of tasks performed outside traditional premises, etc.

The advent of computers led to the standardization of interaction and corresponding restrictions, to a reduction in the need for direct contacts, that is, to a weakening of the personal factor in social relationships. Also, the advent of computers and the development of “networks” increases the likelihood of working at home. 3

At the organizational level, much depends on the way new technologies are introduced (for example, to what extent the attitude towards innovations of the employees themselves will be taken into account, whether employees will specifically develop a positive attitude towards innovations), as well as on the degree of division of labor (between employees and between humans and computers) ). The main thing at this level is to find out how the workers themselves will participate in these processes (the significance of the work for them depends on this). 4

The social level, where two main processes (trends) are distinguished: 1) new technologies contribute to an increase in production (or stabilize the unemployment rate). This leads to a narrowing of the subjective significance of work, although mandatory norms (awareness of the inevitability of progress, etc.) come to the fore; 2) it is possible to create a more flexible adaptive orientation, when a change in ideas about work will be focused on the future, even in times when it is still difficult to get a job

2. Features of the influence of motivation on the formation of work goals

Directly related to the problem of job satisfaction is the problem of work motives. A. I. Zelichenko and A. G. Shmelev propose the following system of external and internal motivational factors of work, which can be used not only to identify a person’s readiness to work effectively, but also for the purpose of professional orientation of self-determined clients: 5

External motivational factors:

pressure factors - recommendations; adviсe; instructions from other people, as well as examples of movie characters, literary characters, etc.); objective requirements (military service, family financial situation); individual objective circumstances (health status, abilities);

factors of attraction and repulsion - examples from the immediate environment of a person, from other people; everyday standards of “social prosperity” (fashion, prestige, prejudices);

factors of inertia - stereotypes of existing social roles (family, membership in informal groups); habitual activities (arising under the influence of school subjects, hobbies).

Internal motivational factors:

own motivational factors of the profession - the subject of work; the labor process (attractive - unattractive, aesthetic aspects, variety - monotony of activity, determinism - randomness of success, labor intensity of work, individual - collective work, opportunities for human development in this work); labor results;

working conditions - physical (climatic, dynamic work characteristics); territorial-geographical (proximity of location, need for travel); organizational conditions (independence-subordination, objectivity-subjectivity in the assessment of work); social conditions (difficulty-ease of obtaining vocational education, opportunities for subsequent employment; security of the employee’s position; free-limited regime; social microclimate);

opportunities for realizing non-professional goals - opportunities for social work; to achieve the desired social position; to create material well-being; for recreation and entertainment; to preserve and improve health; for mental self-preservation and development; opportunities provided by work and profession for communication.

1. Meaning and job satisfaction

K. Zamfir believes that an important role in understanding and satisfaction with work is played by the social usefulness of work, which presupposes awareness of one’s work as a source of society’s well-being (and not just as a means of one’s own enrichment - this is related to the problem of the mission of one’s profession, one’s company); awareness of the quality of your work (gratitude from consumers, etc.); caring for the environment (environmental aspects of work), etc. is also playing an increasingly important role. 6

K. Zamfir proposes a system that allows you to assess job satisfaction in accordance with its content. The system includes the following main indicators, each of which can be assessed on a 5-point scale: 7

general conditions - transport to the enterprise; convenient work schedule; social benefits (canteen, nursery, etc.); earnings; career advancement opportunities;

physical working conditions - labor safety; aesthetics of the work place; noise, temperature, vibration, etc.; content of work - variety - monotony; complexity of work, required qualifications; the need to solve new, interesting problems; elements of leadership and responsibility; matching personal abilities;

relationships between people at work - relationships with the team; relationships with immediate supervisors;

organizational framework of labor - the level of organization at the enterprise; state of public opinion; socio-psychological climate.

M. Argyle identifies the following factors of job satisfaction: 8

Wage. Those people who are satisfied with other aspects of their lives are more satisfied with their high earnings.

Relations with employees. In terms of importance, this factor ranks next to salary. The main expectations from employees are material and social support. But even more important is assistance in achieving common goals. The main types of friendships at work: friendships that go beyond work (for example, in communication at home); friendship only at work (with whom you can have a cup of coffee, but there is no desire to transfer this to a non-work environment); friendly relations, but without the desire to move to an informal level. Indicators of “close communication at work”: the desire to joke with another person, chat from time to time, discuss the work itself, drink a cup of coffee, have a snack together, sometimes tease him (her), provide help at work, ask for or give advice on personal problems, discuss your feelings and experiences, discuss your personal life, teach or show something about work.

Relationships with management. Basic expectations from managers: fairness in reward and punishment, career protection, improvement of working conditions. Research shows that the role of managers in overcoming difficulties at work is rated even higher than the role of co-workers and spouses.

Opportunities for promotion. Achievement and recognition are the two most commonly cited sources of job satisfaction (according to Herzberg). The most important indicators of promotion are salary and job status.

Other Satisfaction Factors- satisfaction with conditions; satisfaction with the company (pride in the company); organization of time (does work allow you to be the master of your time, how well is it spent); providing free status and personal identity (being yourself at work); long-term, long-term life goals (can work help in their implementation); a sense of community of activity shared with other people; forced activity (so that work disciplines a person and does not create conditions for “stagnation” and “idleness”).

M. Argyle also identifies the main manifestations of job dissatisfaction: leaving (dismissal, searching for a new job); expression of protest (negotiations with the manager, writing letters, strikes, etc.); loyalty (patiently enduring difficulties); neglect (absenteeism, tardiness, low productivity).

5. Characteristics of labor goals

Goals, ideas about the final result, the effect of labor are fixed in society through samples of relevant work, their images, descriptions, and the formulation of general requirements for them. 9

They talk about objectively given and subjectively accepted goals of labor (objective as socially given and subjective goals), about the goals of labor as subjective images of the desired future.

The result of the work of the head of a production team is a certain new state of this team, characterized by a large number of signs, some of which are far from obvious, although they are important both currently and in the future (for example, the so-called “creative atmosphere”).

The result of a programmer's work - a worker who implements a function prescribed by the customer, an algorithm, a sequence of commands executed by hardware and software to produce the result, can be different both in structure and in scope, the programming language used in the work can also be different.

In some professions, the specificity of labor is such that its product is not given, but sought.

There are goals that characterize a job position and goals that characterize a specific person employed in it. They may not match.

Labor position of a scientist: the goals of labor are the production of reliable and useful information, E.A. Klimov also mentions the goal of “obtaining the truth,” when the goals of a real scientist’s work are to work in a “respectable institution” and to gain experience and a number of publications.

The manager is instructed to make so many trips to remove city garbage to a landfill, while he interprets what is happening for himself in such a way that his goal is to improve the hygienic culture of the city, which without his work will “choke in its own sewage.”

The social mission and, therefore, the goal of labor, from the point of view of society can be one thing, but for the employee it can be completely different. Such discrepancies between subjective (subjective) and objective goals are possible in a wide variety of professions.

Conclusion

Thus, consideration of the theoretical issues of the test work showed that the subjective significance of work can be easily instilled, and the very idea of ​​​​the subjective significance of work changes over time, often passing through critical periods. In many cases, there really is a “partial significance” of specific work, when an employee, for example, values ​​himself and his work not for the benefits that his work brings to others, but for the fees that he receives for it.

Directly related to the problem of job satisfaction is the problem of work motives. K. Zamfir believes that the social utility of labor plays an important role in understanding and satisfaction with work, which presupposes awareness of one’s work as a source of well-being for society; awareness of the quality of your work; Respect for the environment is also playing an increasingly important role.

In turn, it is necessary to conclude that goals, ideas about the final result, the effect of labor are fixed in society through samples of relevant work, their images, descriptions, and the formulation of general requirements for them

Bibliography

Klimov E.A. Introduction to occupational psychology. - M.: Culture and Sports, UNITY, 1998. - 350 p.

Klimov E.A. The image of the world in different types of professions. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1995. - 224 p.

Klimov E.A. Psychology of professional self-determination. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1996. - 512 p.

Leonova A. B., Chernysheva O. N. Labor psychology and organizational psychology: Current state and development prospects: Reader. - M.: Academy, 1995. – 429 p.

Pryazhnikova N.S., Pryazhnikova E.Yu. Psychology of work and human dignity. - Voronezh, 2000. – 253 p.

1 Pryazhnikova N.S., Pryazhnikova E.Yu. Psychology of work and human dignity. - Voronezh, 2000. – p. 72

2 Pryazhnikova N.S., Pryazhnikova E.Yu. Psychology of work and human dignity. - Voronezh, 2000. – p. 73

3 Klimov E.A. Psychology of professional self-determination. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1996. - p. 96

Tasks ... organization, increasing validity adoption management decisions, ... – objective And subjective. Objectively there are different roles, often with opposites goals And...

Work as the basis for the development of society and an important factor of production

Abstract >> Management

... labor, 3) production technology, 4) organization labor, 5) himself labor, as a process of conscious influence on the subject labor With purpose...have objectively subjective historical... labor, as well as readiness for adoption ... labor– implementation of standardized tasks ...

Subjective variability of personal qualities

Coursework >> Psychology

And thus, to achieve goals, adopted subject. This approach... consciousness, having speech, the ability work; on the other hand, a man... above some task either quickly, or... combinations in it objective And subjective moments, that is...

Adoption short-term decisions based on management accounting data

Abstract >> Accounting and Auditing

Influence subjective factors on Adoption solutions. ... Target application of these models - selection of the best actions (alternatives) based on given... ; organization plan labor accounting workers. ... sides allow objectively evaluate the performance of managers...

Adoption decisions as the most important function of a leader

Abstract >> Management

Subordinates with purpose fulfillment of planned tasks; ensuring productivity growth labor and equipment; ... only based on systems objective And subjective its manifestations, assessment... group norms provides Adoption Or no Adoption individual by group. ...

Topic: Goals, objectives, methods and means of managing work activities in groups of preschool children.

Labor education is a purposeful process of forming in preschool children a conscious attitude and inclination to work as a basic life need, as well as the formation of a habit of work by including the child in active work. The goal of labor education for preschoolers is to form in children ideas about the work activities of adults, to develop labor skills and abilities, and to cultivate diligence as a personality trait.

Various researchers offer their own formulations of the tasks of labor education. Let's list some of them. So, V.I. Loginova identifies the following tasks: developing an attitude towards work; nurturing the need to work; mastering labor knowledge, skills and abilities in the main types of work. V.G. Nechaev’s tasks of labor education include: the formation of labor skills and abilities; nurturing an attitude towards work, the desire to help adults; education of moral and volitional qualities of the individual; mastering work skills; nurturing attitudes towards work in adults. Hard work is manifested in the child’s need to be involved in work, the ability to experience joy in the process, and to achieve goals.

Labor education of preschool children includes three groups of tasks. The first group determines the pedagogical influence on the formation of work activity itself and includes:

1. Consistent development in children of skills to carry out labor processes. Genetically, the child first masters effective work actions, and then in primary and middle preschool age learns to independently carry out work processes: set a goal, select materials and tools in accordance with it, arrange them rationally in the workplace, perform a series of work actions in sequence, achieve results, appropriate for the purpose, put away work equipment, put the workplace in order.

2. Timely development in children of the ability to carry out types of work available to them, including sets of labor processes. Solving this problem involves children mastering the ability to set broader, comprehensive goals, plan their implementation, taking into account the situation: provide for certain work processes, determine the sequence of their implementation and carry them out, distribute work processes between labor participants, and achieve results in accordance with the goal.

3. Formation of initial social motives for work. At first, the child is motivated to work by interest in objects and actions with them. However, unstable interest in subjects and a variety of activities often lead to the substitution of work for play and a fading interest in work. The interest in achieving the result of labor, which arises in childhood and strengthens in middle age, makes the labor process attractive to children and causes a stable and conscious desire to participate in it.

By older preschool age, based on an understanding of the social significance of the results of labor, initial social motives for activity develop: to do something for someone else, to help a peer achieve the desired result. Such initial social motives encourage children to engage in long-term labor efforts, to achieve good quality work results, and provide a lasting interest in the work itself.

The solution of this group of problems determines the child’s inclusion in work, the level of development of work activity, and, consequently, its use as a means of education.

The second group of tasks is aimed at cultivating a positive attitude towards work in adults and provides for:

1. Identification of adult labor for a child as a special activity aimed at achieving results that are significant for others. Preschool children do not yet know how to clearly distinguish the work of adults from other forms of activity. An essential feature of labor is the achieved result that satisfies people’s needs. Therefore, it is necessary to form the orientation of the child’s perception towards isolating the result of an adult’s work, to expand knowledge about the purpose of the results of work, their social significance, and knowledge of how the results of work are achieved.

2. Fostering respect for the working person, the desire to provide him with all possible assistance. Knowledge about the results of human labor, their social significance, and knowledge about a person’s attitude to work are also essential.

3. Fostering a caring attitude towards the results of an adult’s work - towards the things surrounding children. It is important to show and tell children that every thing is created so that it serves not one person, but many people. This group of problems is solved mainly in the process of forming knowledge about the work of adults.

The third group of tasks is aimed at nurturing the child’s personality in the process of work. It includes:

1. Raising the correct attitude of children towards their own work: hard work, willingness to participate in any work, without avoiding unpleasant work, the desire to complete every task and the habit of labor effort, etc. The solution to this problem is based on the formation of skills to carry out labor processes, on social motives of labor.

2. Nurturing personal traits: responsibility, independence, dedication, perseverance, initiative, determination, endurance and patience, etc. The implementation of this task is closely related to the development of a child’s attitude towards his work.

3. Nurturing behavior and positive relationships between children: the ability to work amicably and in harmony, to bring collective work through joint efforts to the desired result, to kindly evaluate the work of comrades, to show concern for a comrade, to provide assistance to him, etc.

Solving this problem involves children mastering labor processes and types of labor. All of the above tasks are solved in unity in each age group.

The content of the work of preschool children is determined by the tasks of labor education and the children’s capabilities. The tasks and content of labor education in preschool institutions are set out in the “Program of Education in Kindergarten” in relation to each age group. It also reveals the gradual complication of the requirements for work activity and the personal qualities of the child that are formed in the process of work, and indicates the requirements for knowledge about work.

More complex software requirements include:

1. Increase in the volume of labor activity. It is manifested in the fact that in the first junior group, children master individual effective actions in a particular labor process. For example, first with the techniques of washing, then soaping hands, wiping, techniques of buttoning and unbuttoning buttons, putting on individual items of clothing, etc. Then in the second junior group, as well as in the middle and senior groups, the program includes requirements for mastering the integral processes of labor (dressing, washing , setting the table, preparing food and feeding individual animals, creating some crafts, etc.).

It is also envisaged to increase the number of labor processes in each type of labor. For example, in self-care, caring for clothes and shoes is added to washing and dressing; in household work, in addition to setting the table, preparing tables for classes - maintaining cleanliness and order in the group room, on the site, at home, etc.

In a preparatory group for school, a child must be able to carry out one or another type of work in general: take care of himself (wash, get dressed, clean clothes, sew on a button, wash small items), maintain order in his things and in the room, care for the inhabitants of the living area and etc. This gradual increase in the volume of activity and the gradual introduction of different types of work is determined by the child’s accessibility to both the technique of each labor action and process, as well as knowledge about work, its effectiveness, and awareness of its necessity for others.

2. Improving labor skills and abilities, which is manifested in mastering the technique of performing labor actions, labor processes (speed, accuracy, economy of movements, etc.), as well as in a gradual increase in the requirements for independence, awareness and flexibility of skills - their application in constantly changing conditions, for example: table setting depends on the menu; plant care - depending on the season, etc.

3. Improving the planning and organization of work activity, which involves a gradual complication of the requirements for independence in performing first individual work processes, then an entire type of work and, finally, general, collective work activity (preparatory group): the ability to accept and then independently determine the purpose of work activity , present its result, establish a sequence of labor actions or labor processes, pre-select the necessary materials and tools, arrange them conveniently, clean up after work and store in order, it is advisable to distribute responsibilities between participants in collective work, and achieve the intended result.

4. Formation of motives for work. The program provides for the dynamics of motives - from interest in the external side of work activity (actions, tools) in early preschool age to interest in the results of work and their use for oneself and for others and, finally, to the formation of socially significant motives.

5. The formation of increasingly complex knowledge about the work of adults is important both for the successful mastery of the work activity itself, and for the formation of socially significant motives for work and the correct attitude towards work. The formation of knowledge about the work of adults is carried out in special classes.

Tasks of labor education (V. G. Nechaeva, R. S. Bure):

1) fostering a positive attitude towards the work of adults, the desire to provide them with all possible assistance;

2) the formation of labor skills and their further improvement, the gradual expansion of the content of work activity, mastering the ability to work accurately, deftly, and at a fairly fast pace;

3) education of personal qualities in children (habits of work effort, responsibility, caring, thrift, readiness to take part in work);

4) developing skills in organizing one’s own and general work: the ability to cook

everything you need in advance, put away used tools after finishing work, put the work place in order;

5) the formation of positive relationships between children in the process of work: the ability to work amicably and in concert, to bring collective work through joint efforts to the desired result, to evaluate the work of comrades kindly, to show concern for a comrade, to provide assistance to him.

Labor education of preschoolers is carried out through a number of means: own labor activity; familiarization with the work of adults; artistic means.

Children's own labor activity is a necessary means of labor education. Children learn specific work skills and abilities, achieve visible results, and satisfy their need for real inclusion in the world of adults. With the help of this tool, applied, practical problems of labor education are solved.

Familiarization with the work of adults allows you to expand the child’s understanding of the content of human activity, the social significance of work, and attitude towards work. Familiarization with the work of adults is aimed at solving the intellectual and moral problems of labor education.

The artistic means of labor education for preschoolers include: fiction, music, and visual arts.

The role of artistic means in the labor education of preschoolers is unique. You cannot teach a person to work by listening to music, a story, a fairy tale, or looking at a picture about work. And yet, it is with the help of artistic means that one can arouse in children an interest in work, a desire to be like those who work, and to understand the importance and social significance of work.

All of these artistic means are effective in the pedagogical process if they are used systematically, in conjunction with each other and with the organization of preschoolers’ work activities.

The main methods of labor education for preschoolers are: demonstration; explanation; discussion of the labor process and its results; grade; training in individual methods of performing labor operations.

The opposite of work activity is leisure activity. Lawyers call all free time from work rest time. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work, doing housework, he can go for a walk or go on a trip. All these ways of spending free time involve taking active actions. One of these actions is a game.

Game activity, unlike work activity, is focused not so much on the result as on the process itself. Games arose in ancient times and were associated with religion, art, sports, and military exercises. Scientists will probably never figure out how games originated. Perhaps they emerged from the ritual dances of ancient people, or perhaps they were a way of teaching the younger generation.

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of play believe that games are characteristic of many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during games, young animals learn the behavior patterns of representatives of their species, and mating games help attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that play is a specific human activity.

If we consider play as a type of human activity, then we can say that it is more characteristic of children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, and develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, plot, role-playing, movement, educational, sports, etc. As a person gets older, the number of games in his life decreases. Some disappear completely, remaining as childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of “adult” games are appearing, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive passion for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave his family without a livelihood, and even end his life. life.

The uniqueness of play activity, especially in childhood, is most evident in its two-dimensionality. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary environment. It is no coincidence that during the game, children utter the words “as if,” emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

The distribution of roles plays an important role in the game. Each of the players strives to take the main, best role. There may not be enough such roles for all participants. Therefore, the game teaches loyalty and compromise even at the stage of its preparation.

The implementation of role functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the implementation of certain rules, the same for all participants. The game can use various objects, symbols, gestures, and conventional signs. Often specific situations are modeled, which helps to include the child in the world of human relationships and teaches adulthood. Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that will be useful during study, and then in the process of work.

There is no doubt about the relationship between work and play. Some games, especially educational ones, involve the need to exert certain efforts, and in work activities one can find game elements. “Does it effortlessly,” they say about masters of their craft, i.e. makes it easy, relaxed, highly professional.

Questions and tasks

1. How did labor influence the processes of anthropo- and sociogenesis?

2. In what areas of a person’s life and how is labor activity manifested?

3. What are the differences between productive and unproductive labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the goals of work? How are subject, object and tools interconnected?

6. What role does specialization play in work activity?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualification.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed during work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanization of labor?

11. What are the differences between work and play? What role does play play in a person’s life?

12. What labor issues are raised in the following statements:

A.P. Chekhov: “You must put your life in such conditions that work

was necessary. Without work there cannot be a pure and joyful life.”

F. W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to abandon his individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms, and get used to accepting and executing directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion.”

J.V. Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can only be mastered with a certain specialization. Acquiring complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of one subject provides more education than mastering half a hundred different subjects.”

L.N. Tolstoy: “Corporal labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it.”

I.P. Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental and physical work, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I especially felt satisfied when I contributed some good guess to the last one, i.e. connected “head with hands.”

2.5. COMMUNICATION

Man is a social being and cannot live outside of society. Life in society involves interaction between its members, which is called communication.1

Communication as a process of interaction between two or more people has a lot of manifestations depending on how and under what circumstances it takes place. Thus, a distinction is made between speech and non-speech communication. Speech is the most important social property of a person. Often in a short phrase we can express what cannot be shown with facial expressions and gestures. However, non-verbal communication is just as important as verbal communication. Road signs, indexes, plates, fencing tapes - all of this carries certain information. Forms of non-verbal communication also include such methods of transmitting information as semaphore, Morse code, and flag signaling. At the junction of speech and non-speech communication is the transmission of written information.

Depending on the methods of interaction, perceptual, verbal and interactive communication are distinguished. Perceptual communication is associated with a person’s ability to grasp the mental state of the interlocutor and feel it. Such communication is often possible between close people - parents and children, lovers, spouses, old good friends. They say about such people: “they understand each other perfectly.” Verbal communication is communication using words, i.e. speech communication. Its varieties include monologue (transmission of information from the speaker to listeners), exchange of remarks (verbal clarification of the actions performed) and dialogue (conversation between two or more persons).

Dialogue is the most common form of verbal communication. It presupposes the independence and activity of its participants, recognition of the importance of the point of view of each of the parties participating in the dialogue. Dialogue involves an exchange of opinions, waiting for an answer, and a willingness to explain one’s position. Discussions, conferences, and negotiations take place in the form of dialogue. Dialogue is the main way of transmitting information between people and in social life.

Interactive communication occurs when people interact in the process of joint activities: at work, study, while spending leisure time together, etc. In the process of interactive communication, people adapt to each other, sympathy and mutual understanding arise between them. There is a place for healthy competition here; It is possible that conflict situations may arise. Working in a work team, playing with friends, putting out fires by firefighters together with residents of neighboring houses - all these are types of interactive communication.

In connection with the development of means of information transmission, the diversity of communication is increasing. Communication via the Internet, telephone communication, and SMS communication can already be identified as a special type. This raised the question of the relationship between communication and communication with particular relevance. Both of these phenomena involve the exchange of information, the content of which may be the same. The difference is as follows. When communicating, as we know, subjects have equal rights and are active; the exchange of information leads to its addition, change, and clarification. Thus, new information is formed, the owners of which become all participants in communication. Communication involves the transfer of information from one subject to another without feedback. Only the recipient receives new information. Therefore, it is not updated or clarified. Examples of communication media are radio and television.

Communication performs several important functions depending on the purpose of human interaction. Firstly, the information function. Communication serves as a means of transmitting information. Secondly, the educational function. By receiving new information, people enrich their knowledge. Thirdly, the educational function. When communicating, one person can influence another in order to instill in him certain patterns of behavior. Finally, communication performs the function of supporting the joint activities of people and including a person in society as an equal member of it.

Depending on the content and the sphere in which it is carried out, several forms of communication are distinguished: everyday, business, persuasive, educational, cultural, scientific, intercultural, ritual, etc.

Everyday (everyday) communication is communication between close people (relatives, friends, acquaintances) in everyday everyday life.

Business (official) communication is carried out at work, in the process of work. It is in the nature of orders, instructions, directions and is aimed at achieving positive results of work activity. Within the framework of business communication, the manager acts as an active subject who influences the subordinate. The latter must follow instructions, but he has the right to express his point of view on the task (problem, situation), especially if this can help improve the quality of work.

Persuasive communication involves influencing one person to change another person's attitudes and behavior. Thus, parents can convince their child to devote more time to study, a candidate for deputy encourages them to vote for him in elections, fire service authorities recommend that the population handle fire carefully. In such communication, the persuading subject presents arguments that help persuade the person being persuaded towards his point of view. These could be profitable prospects, the threat of punishment, etc.

Educational communication is the influence of the teacher on the student in order to instill in him a certain set of knowledge, skills and abilities. It is carried out both within educational institutions and in the process of acquiring knowledge necessary in everyday life.

Cultural communication is associated with the interaction of people in the process of familiarization with cultural values. This could be visiting exhibitions, excursions, theaters, cinema, joint creative activities within the framework of musical, artistic and other groups, membership in various clubs, organizations, etc.

Scientific communication accompanies research activities. Science does not stand still. In order not to “reinvent the wheel,” a scientist must monitor the results of the work of his colleagues. Scientific communication occurs both at the interpersonal level and at various scientific conferences, debates, and symposia.

Intercultural communication occurs between people who share different cultural values. This could be the interaction of representatives of different trends in music, art, literature, communication between “fathers” and “children” or representatives of different nationalities. Such communication can proceed on the basis of cooperation and cultural mutual enrichment, or it can create conflict situations.

Ritual communication is the fulfillment of pre-prescribed rules of behavior. It occurs constantly in everyday life. Acquaintances greet each other when they meet, shake hands, and the military salutes. The students stand up to greet the teacher as he enters the classroom. Ritual communication plays a leading role when performing religious rites, observing national and other customs, such as the marriage procedure, accepting an invitation and visiting, visiting public places, etc.

One of the types of ritual communication is etiquette, which translated from Greek means custom. Etiquette is a set of rules of behavior relating to the external manifestation of relationships towards others. This includes behavior in public places, forms of address, greetings, manners, required clothing, etc.

The most common rule in our life is greeting. It should never be noisy or unrestrained. The junior should be the first to greet the senior, and the subordinate should be the first to greet the boss. Anyone entering the room should also greet those present first. When greeting a person, you need to look into his eyes kindly. You cannot extend your hand across the table when greeting. Refusing to accept an extended hand to shake hands is considered an insult.

There are rules for dating. A junior should be introduced to a senior, a man to a woman, an employee to the manager. An individual is introduced to the group.

You must arrive on time for your appointment. If you are late, you should apologize and explain the reasons for the delay.

Behavior at a party also provides for a number of rules. If you are invited to visit and you accept the invitation, it would be impolite not to come, and it would be indecent to be more than ten minutes late. When accepting an invitation, it is not good to ask about the composition of the guests. The owner himself can say so if he considers it necessary. At the same time, he must do this if he knows about hostile relations between the invitees. If you meet a person at a party whom you would least like to see, you should nevertheless say hello to him.

For everyday life there are also rules that must be followed. They relate to behavior with children and the elderly, a man’s attention to the woman he is accompanying, the choice of topic for conversation in society, etc.

The ability to behave correctly in relationships with other people is called communication culture. Regardless of the sphere of communication and the environment in which it is carried out, the culture of communication always presupposes politeness, punctuality, modesty, tact, respect for others, the ability to listen to the interlocutor and understand him. A person who adheres to all these rules can rightfully be called cultured.

Questions and tasks

1. What is communication? What types of communication do you know?

2. Give examples of verbal and non-verbal communication.

3. Describe the types of communication depending on the ways people interact. Give examples.

4. What types of communication do you most often resort to?

5. What is the difference between communication and communication?

6. What functions does communication perform?

7. What forms of communication do you know? Describe them.

8. What role does etiquette play in relationships between people? Name the rules of etiquette that you know. Which ones do you do most often?

9. What is a culture of communication? What kind of person can be called cultural?

10. Based on the words of B. Shaw, determine the meaning of communication: “If you have an apple and I have an apple, and if we exchange these apples, then both you and I will have one apple each. And if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas.”

2.6. PERSON, INDIVIDUAL, PERSONALITY

The concepts indicated in the title are often used as synonyms. However, there are significant semantic differences between them. Man is a being of the biological species homo sapiens. An individual is a representative of the human race, endowed with special traits that are different from other people. Each of us is an individual. Each person from birth is endowed with a special appearance, character, abilities, etc. The specific features that distinguish a person from the totality of his own kind constitute his individuality. It presupposes not only features of external appearance, but also a complex of socially significant qualities of an individual.

Each person is individual, but not every individual can become an individual. What qualities should a person have? At what age do they become one? There is no clear answer to these questions. From one point of view, a personality is a person who has a set of positive characteristics. According to another point of view, personality appears as something special, taken in a social aspect.

Personality is the integrity of a person’s social properties, a product of social development and the inclusion of the individual in the system of social relations through active substantive activity and communication.

An individual becomes a personality in the process of mastering social functions and developing self-awareness. Self-awareness is the awareness of one’s uniqueness as a subject of activity as a member of society. (The most important quality of a person is social activity, which can be considered in two manifestations. The first involves considering social activity as a property of a person, conditioned by his natural data and enhanced by qualities that are formed in the process of upbringing, education, communication and practical activity. Some people are naturally active , are energetic and active, which becomes noticeable already in early childhood. Others, on the contrary, are passive and inactive. Under the influence of many social factors, activity can develop, intensify or weaken. The second manifestation of social activity is associated with activity as some specific measure of activity. In In this case, activity can be expressed in specific indicators. An example is the measurement of labor activity. The criterion for social activity is the results of activity. The concept of “social activity” is closely related to the concept of “social subject” - a person capable of active social activity.

Sociology distinguishes such types of personality as normative (basic) and modal. A normative (basic) personality is a personality type accepted by the culture of the corresponding society, which most reflects the characteristics of a given culture. This is a kind of ideal type that society focuses on in raising the younger generation. In any social group, one can identify an individual with characteristics that most fully express the goals, conditions and patterns of functioning of this group. Thus, at a university there are ideas about what a student should be, in the army - a military man, at a factory - a worker, etc.

A modal (from the word “fashion”) personality is a person committed to the same cultural patterns as the majority of members of a given society. That is, this is the personality type that is most common in a given territory and at a given point in time. Modal personality reflects the real position of a person in society. For example, in the last decade of the 20th century. In Russia, the type of profit-oriented trading person has become widespread. It should be noted that in society there may be several types of modal personality, depending on the presence of different social groups.

The modal personality never corresponds to the normative one, although sometimes there are some overlaps. Deviations from the normative type, if they are quite significant, encounter resistance from society, which forces individuals to comply with generally accepted norms. In addition, a normative personality is more constant, while a modal personality is more dynamic. As living conditions change, personality types also change. Thus, a democratic society is characterized by a politically active type of personality, and an anti-democratic one is characterized by a type that obeys guidelines.

In conditions of radical changes in social life, a marginal personality type is becoming widespread, i.e. borderline personality: a person who has fallen out of his previous social environment and has failed to adapt to changed circumstances experiences mental discomfort, uncertainty about the future and seeks to join any social group to stabilize his position.

The formation of personality is influenced by many factors. First of all, it is heredity. From parents a person receives a set of individual properties of appearance, health, psyche, etc. But at the level of heredity, only psychophysiological properties are transmitted to a person. In most cases they play a secondary role. They can act as the main ones when a person is significantly different from those around him. In extreme cases, these are either physical and mental pathologies, or giftedness.

Another, more important factor is education - the process of purposeful influence on a person to form certain qualities in him. A person experiences educational influence from parents, teachers, and friends.

An important factor in personality formation is the social environment, i.e. those people among whom a person moves, on whom he depends or who depend on him, on whom he is oriented or who are oriented towards him. There is a macro-environment (society as a whole, the system of education, upbringing, etc.) and a micro-environment (work collective, family, school). The individual and society interact with each other. Society can influence the formation of an individual and his actions. At the same time, the individual is capable of changing the social environment. The relationships that are formed and implemented in the process of such interaction are called social.

L< Социальные отношения - это устойчивая система связей инди­видов, сложившаяся в процессе их взаимодействия друг с другом в условиях данного общества. Социальные отношения складываются между людьми, включенными в различные социальные группы. Человек не может существовать обособленно. В своей деятельно­сти он должен учитывать интересы других людей. Так, для дости­жения успехов на работе мало быть хорошим специалистом. Необ­ходимо уметь построить правильные отношения и с начальника­ми, и с сослуживцами. Все действия людей есть производные социальных отношений, которые включают в себя два уровня: социальный уровень (взаимодействие людей посредством различ­ных социальных групп) и психологический уровень (непосредствен­но межличностные отношения).

A situation is possible when, despite favorable conditions, the process of personal development is suspended, since the person himself does not make any effort to do so. For the formation of personality, a person’s desire for self-improvement is necessary. Every person has enormous potential, which can only be revealed if a person sets goals for himself and makes attempts to achieve them.

A person’s abilities play an important role in the development of personality. Abilities are the individual mental qualities of a person that allow him to successfully acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. The wider a person’s range of interests, the easier it is to identify his true abilities. There are often cases when parents force a child to engage in some type of activity (mathematics, sports), but he has abilities in a completely different area (for example, in literature and art).

A clearly expressed ability is called talent. Ability and talent are innate qualities. But if they are not developed, they may fade away. Talent needs to be recognized in a person in time. This is the task of parents, schools, and other public institutions. The development of talent largely depends on the person himself. We call a talented person who constantly develops his abilities and achieves high results in his activities a genius. All brilliant people who left their mark on history were individuals.

But not only talents and geniuses become individuals. Personality is the result of the formation of an individual, the development of his abilities, and the accumulation of experience. A person is characterized by developed self-awareness, a strong position in life, the ability to make decisions and the ability to take responsibility for one’s actions. She always has her own point of view on certain problems and in some cases can oppose herself to society. A person is distinguished by developed willpower, the ability to force himself to act as necessary in a given situation.

Personality formation occurs during socialization Social implementation is the process of mastering social roles, acquiring social statuses and accumulating social experience. The process of socialization begins with a person’s birth and continues throughout his life.

The human life cycle consists of certain age stages: childhood, adolescence, maturity and old age. The age boundaries of these stages are quite blurred. Nevertheless, there are signs by which one can distinguish a child from a youth or a mature person from an old man. Depending on age, stages of socialization are also distinguished. The period of childhood and adolescence constitutes initial socialization, the period of maturity and old age constitutes continued socialization. In the process of socialization, a person is influenced by parents, school, friends (at the stage of initial socialization), and then by college, the army, work, and the state (at the stage of continued socialization).

Education plays an important role in socialization - instilling in a person the values ​​and ideals common in society. Education, as noted above, is a process of purposeful influence on a person to develop certain qualities in him. But there is another side to education, namely, the spontaneous assimilation of rules of behavior. In the first case, education is carried out by parents, school, and university. In the second, the child perceives patterns of behavior, imitating parents, older comrades, idols of cinema, pop, and sports. Purposeful education is always associated with the task of forming a set of positive qualities in a child. Negative patterns of behavior can also be spontaneously absorbed.

In upbringing, purposeful and spontaneous can correspond to each other, or they can come into conflict, for example, when parents constantly tell their child about the dangers of smoking, but they themselves smoke. Therefore, the upbringing process requires responsibility and self-control on the part of parents.

But education does not end when a person grows up. The process of learning norms of behavior continues throughout life. Only its direction changes. If in childhood a person was raised by those around him, then with age he influences himself, forcing him to perform certain actions. This process is called self-education.

Self-education is a property of a developed personality. It requires willpower and the desire for better results. Dissatisfaction with the achieved position, efforts to move forward, a state of constant search are signs indicating the status of an individual. A society consisting of bright personalities develops more dynamically and moves faster along the path of social progress.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the difference between the concepts “person”, “individual”, “personality”?

2. What is social activity? What are its manifestations?

3. Describe the concepts of normative and modal personality. What is their relationship? Give examples.

4. What factors influence the formation of personality?

5. What role do abilities and talent play in the development of personality?

6. What is socialization? What are its stages? What factors influence the socialization process?

7. What role does education play in the development of personality? What is the relationship between purposeful and spontaneous education?

8. What is the importance of self-education? Are you involved in your own education?

9. Read the statement by G.V. Plekhanov.

“A great man is great because he has characteristics that make him most capable of serving the great social needs of his time... A great man is precisely a beginner because he sees further than others and wants stronger than others. He solves scientific problems put on the agenda by the previous course of mental development of society; it indicates new social needs created by the previous development of social relations; he takes upon himself the initiative to satisfy these needs.”

What characteristics of a great man does he highlight?

2.7. THE SPIRITUAL WORLD OF HUMAN

The spiritual world of a person is the sphere of his life in which he demonstrates his intellectual and creative abilities. The spiritual world is individual and unique, constantly evolving. It manifests itself in certain types of activities (spiritual production), forms of behavior and a system of values ​​shared by a person.

The spiritual world is not something isolated. It goes beyond the individual interests of a person, coming into contact with the spiritual interests of other people. Possessing high moral qualities, creativity, and the desire to act for the benefit of others is called spirituality. Spirituality is not inherent in all people. A spiritual person has developed self-awareness, a need for knowledge and self-knowledge, and a continuous search for truth.

1.4 Human activities

Activity is understood as a manifestation of human activity in any sphere of his existence.

In the process of activity there is interaction with the environment. Unlike animals, man not only adapts to the environment, but also strives to transform it. The actions of animals associated with obtaining food, arranging burrows and nests, and raising young are based on instincts, while humans use the experience of their predecessors, think about their actions, and predict their consequences. Thus, human activity is built on a preliminary understanding of all its stages. In this regard, a type of activity is distinguished as thinking.

Subject of activity, i.e. those who carry it out are a person, a group of people, a government, commercial or public organization. The subject in his activity influences the object, which can be various objects of both natural and artificial origin, plants and animals, and even relationships between people. Thus, metal is made from ore, dishes are made from clay, and a house is made from bricks. The farmer cultivates the land, growing crops on it, raising cows and pigs. A man and a woman get married by registering their personal relationship.

In many areas of activity, a person cannot perform actions without using guns. These can be tools, household items, means of transport, various media (books, television, computers, etc.). Moreover, many tools are adapted only to a certain type of human activity.

The subject, object and instruments of activity together represent its structure. An activity cannot be complete without some element of structure. The absence of an object makes any manifestation of activity aimless. In most cases, it is impossible to achieve the expected result with bare hands - it is necessary to use certain tools. And without a subject, activity is generally impossible.

Activities must be purposeful. Setting an activity goal activates a person’s desire to achieve the desired result. Target- this is a mental model of the future result that the subject strives for in the course of his activities. The goal can be formulated orally or in writing, expressed graphically, contained in the mind of a person, but the main thing is that the person clearly understands what he wants to achieve. At the same time, the goal must be realistic. You can set yourself the goal of inventing a perpetual motion machine, flying to the moon, finding a treasure, or, for example, becoming president, but such desires do not always coincide with the real conditions of the surrounding world and the capabilities of the person himself. Undoubtedly, the desire to achieve something is of great importance for achieving the goal. However, it often happens that desire alone is not enough. Success in achieving a goal largely depends on the means, which may include tools, materials used, knowledge, experience, and specific human actions on the path to what is desired. Moreover, the means must correspond to both the goal and the object of activity. We can't dig a hole with our hands. But if sometimes a simple shovel is enough for this, then you will have to use an excavator to dig a pit. You can walk for several hours to your destination, or you can drive in a few minutes.

If human actions are the means, then they should not infringe on the interests of other people. Let's say a person has set a goal to buy a car. He can choose two paths. The first is to buy a car, the second is to steal it. In both cases, the goal of purchasing a car will be achieved. But stealing a car violates the rights of the rightful owner and is also a criminal offense. You can achieve a promotion through hard work, or you can eliminate your rivals through intrigue and slander. But even if intrigue helps you, in the eyes of your colleagues you will be a dishonest person with whom you should not deal. Thus, acting on the principle “the end justifies the means,” the subject harms others and inevitably creates problems for himself.

Activity is not a homogeneous process. For example, to prepare homework, a student reads a textbook, answers questions for a paragraph, completes an assignment in a notebook, etc. He performs a series of sequential actions that ultimately lead him to achieve his goal - completing his homework.

Different people perform the same types of activities in different ways. External manifestations of activity are called behavior. Behavior reflects a person’s attitude towards the people around him. One person is respectful with people, the other is arrogant. Some people take responsibility for doing their work, while others slack off. What does human behavior depend on? How to determine whether it is bad or good? The criterion for evaluating behavior is the rules established in society. If behavior does not conform to these norms, it is condemned by members of society.

An important role in the implementation of activities is played by its motivation, i.e. that which motivates a person to act. Motive call the conscious impulse that guides the subject when performing a particular action. The motivating reasons can be both material and non-material conditions of human life. The feeling of lack of something, material and spiritual discomfort activate human activity. The motive in this case is needs- a person’s perceived and experienced dependence on the conditions of his existence. The emergence of a feeling of dissatisfaction forces a person to be active in order to return to a state of balance, which happens after the need is satisfied (Diagram 3).

The classification of needs was proposed by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970). He arranged the needs in a hierarchical order from lowest to highest. Maslow classified physiological and safety needs as lower (or primary, innate), and social, prestigious and spiritual needs as higher (or secondary, acquired) (Diagram 3).

Scheme 3. Classification of needs according to A. Maslow

Physiological(or vital, i.e., related to the preservation of human life) needs arise in a person from birth. A person needs food, sleep, warmth. The need to reproduce one’s own kind and give birth to children is also classified as physiological, or more precisely, sexual needs.

Security needs (existential needs) are expressed in a person’s desire to protect his life and the lives of his loved ones from any attacks, avoid violence, maintain health, and be confident in the future. The latter concerns not only physical safety, but also the economic foundations of existence - a decent standard of living, social guarantees.

Social (communication) needs are realized in the process of communication between people. A person cannot live outside of society. He interacts with other people at home, at school, at work and in other places. He needs love, friendship, care from others and is ready to respond in kind.

Prestigious needs are expressed in a person’s desire to stand out among others. He strives to study better, get a prestigious job, and move up the career ladder. In satisfying prestigious needs, a person’s self-esteem, the desire to achieve success, and the comparison of goals and real opportunities for achieving them play an important role. Therefore, such needs are also called egoistic.

Spiritual Needs are associated with a person’s creative activity and his desire for self-realization. They are multifaceted and depend on a number of factors. Some people satisfy their spiritual needs by watching television programs, others go to the movies, theaters, museums, and others create works of literature and art.

Primary needs equate humans with animals. The needs for food, sleep, and safety often manifest themselves in people at the level of instincts. But unlike animals, human primary needs are social. A person can give the last piece of bread to the needy, without closing his eyes at the sick bed. History knows many cases of self-sacrifice, when people went to death for the life of loved ones, the freedom of their people. We can satisfy the need for food by swallowing a sandwich, or we can set the table well, light candles, and turn on pleasant music.

Primary needs are inherent to one degree or another in all people. Secondary ones do not appear in everyone. Some people love noisy companies and are always ready to carry on a conversation, while others are reserved and prefer to communicate only when necessary, at school or at work, because they simply cannot avoid this communication. Some people rush forward, strive to become leaders in the company, managers at work. Others, having taken a certain position in society, stop there, abandoning their intentions to continue their career.

Sociologists have proven that a person is motivated to action only by unmet needs. If we want to eat, we will look for an opportunity to satisfy our hunger. If we want to chat with friends, we will definitely meet with them. If we want to climb the career ladder, we will gain new knowledge, learn from experience, and responsibly carry out the instructions of our boss.

At the same time, we cannot begin to satisfy prestigious needs without satisfying social ones, and social ones will not be relevant without satisfying primary needs. After all, a hungry person will think more about finding food than about communication and career. This fully demonstrates the principle of the hierarchy of needs.

An exception to this rule is in some cases spiritual needs. Experiencing a lack of food, warmth, and communication, a person nevertheless reaches out to beauty. He reads books, listens to music, follows events happening in the country and the world. There are many examples in history when creative individuals, living in poverty, created immortal works of art. On the other hand, among financially secure people there are sometimes those who do not care about their spiritual development, wasting their energy in pursuit of career success and money. Thus, the spiritual sphere develops regardless of a person’s material well-being.

In satisfying needs, as well as in the process of all his activities, a person is guided by the system of values ​​and ideals accepted in society. These may be ideas about happiness and the meaning of life, concepts of honor, duty, goodness and justice (the value of interpersonal communication), issues of prestige of material and official position, democratic rights and freedoms, and moral values. The system of values ​​is formed in society gradually. Society discards relationships that are alien to it and stands up for the defense of positive manifestations, turning them into values ​​and ideals enshrined in various kinds of norms (rules of behavior) - moral, ethical, corporate, legal, etc. People's activities manifest themselves in various spheres of social life. In this regard, they highlight activities(Scheme 4).

Diagram 4. Types of activities

First of all, activities can be divided into practical and spiritual. Practical activity aimed at transforming the world around us. Depending on the object of influence, practical activities are divided into material and production, changing nature, and social affecting society. Spiritual activity is connected with human consciousness. It consists of cognitive activity, manifested in the awareness of all elements of the surrounding world, evaluative activity, during which priorities are determined, and all phenomena are considered from a positive or negative side, and prognostic activity associated with the consideration of possible development options and planning of one’s actions.

Depending on the results, activities can be divided into creative and destructive. Most of humanity's achievements are the result of its creative activity. But many of these achievements were lost during wars and revolutions, which were manifestations of destructive activity. At the same time, the question arises: from what position should the creation of new types of military equipment be considered? From the point of view of the scientific and technological development of society, this is undoubtedly a manifestation of creative activity, during which something new is created. But military equipment is initially aimed at destruction. Therefore, a contradiction arises in the assessment of this type of human activity.

Depending on the forms of activity, there are labor, leisure, educational, creative, scientific, political, teaching and other activities.

The highest form of human activity is creativity, which is directly related to spiritual needs. As a result of creative activity, new, previously non-existent cultural values ​​are created. Elements of creativity are found in almost every type of human activity. However, creativity is most clearly manifested in science and art. The basis of creativity is the idea, i.e. the formulation of the problem, the designation of the stages of work. The idea realized by the creator accumulates in his imagination, prompting him to take specific steps for its implementation. Upon achieving the result, the author evaluates the novelty of his work and its practical significance. Moreover, the result of creative activity must be recognized by society. In practice, there have been cases when recognition of achievements was delayed for many years and even centuries. Let us recall, for example, Copernicus and Bruno.

One form of activity is labor.

Work- this is an activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, which distinguishes humans from animals. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of man as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various areas of human life. He works not only at work, but also at home, at his dacha, and in other places. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive work associated with the creation of a variety of material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, producing parts that are then assembled into a product (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.). At the end of the working day, he comes home, cooks food and devotes his free time to his favorite activity (hobby), for example, assembling a radio. On weekends in the summer at his dacha, he cultivates a vegetable garden and harvests in the fall. These are all examples of productive work.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at the creation, but at the maintenance of material objects. In the economic sphere, unproductive labor is associated with the provision of services: transportation of goods, warranty service, etc. In the domestic sphere, unproductive labor includes, for example, cleaning the apartment, washing dishes, and routine repairs.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there was only the production of industrial products, but there were no services for their repair, then landfills would be filled with broken household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. But why buy a new thing if it is more expedient to repair the old one?

However, humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated enormous cultural experience, embodied in literature, science, and art. How to classify this type of work? In this case, they talk about intellectual work, or spiritual production. To distinguish this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely the division of labor into mental and physical.

For many centuries of its history, humanity knew mainly only physical labor. Many works were carried out using human muscle power. Sometimes he was replaced by animals. Mental work was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the advent of machines in industrial production, physical labor was increasingly replaced by mental labor. The share of workers engaged in mental work has constantly increased. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the 20th century. It is not without reason that people started talking about the objective merging of mental and physical labor. After all, even the simplest work now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

Nature gives us very little in finished form. Without labor, you cannot even pick mushrooms and berries in the forest. In most cases, natural materials undergo complex processing. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to human needs.

Satisfaction of needs is the goal of work activity. It is necessary not only to realize the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways to satisfy it and the efforts that are required to make this happen.

To achieve the goals of work, various means are used. These are various tools of labor adapted to perform a particular job. When starting any work, you need to have an idea of ​​the most effective ways to influence the object of work, i.e. to what undergoes transformation in the process of labor activity. Various ways of influencing the object of labor are called technologies, and the set of operations to transform the initial product into the final product is called a technological process.

The more advanced tools and the more correct technology are used, the higher labor productivity will be. It is expressed in the quantity of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of work activity consists of separate operations, actions, and movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the worker, and in a broad sense - on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. Technology is not always applicable, for example, when loading and unloading goods, during construction, or when assembling the final product.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, effort and energy, can be individual and collective. The individual work of a craftsman, a housewife, a writer and an artist. They independently carry out all labor operations until the final result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations are one way or another divided between individual subjects of the labor process: workers at a factory, builders at a house, scientists at a research institute. Even initially seemingly individual work activities can represent part of the totality of work operations of many people. So, to improve the land, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people, and then sells the crop through wholesale centers. This situation is called specialization or division of labor. For a more effective organization of the labor process, communication between its participants is necessary. Through communication, information is transmitted and joint activities are coordinated.

The concept of “labor” is synonymous with the concept of “work”. In a broad sense they are indeed the same. However, if we can include any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs as work, then work is most often called activity that is carried out for remuneration. Thus, work is a type of work activity.

The increasing complexity of work activity and the emergence of new types of work have led to the emergence of many professions. Their number is increasing more and more with the development of science and technology. A profession is a type of work activity with a specific nature and purpose of work functions, for example, a doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in a given profession is called a specialty. Even at the stage of training in a specialty, specialization can be carried out, for example, a surgeon or general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher.

However, it is not enough to have a specific specialty. You need to gain practical skills for working on it. The level of training, experience, and knowledge in a given specialty is called qualification. It is determined by rank or rank. Discharges exist among workers at industrial enterprises and among school teachers. Titles are awarded to figures in science, culture, and higher education.

The higher the qualifications of the employee, the higher his work is paid. If he changes jobs, it is easier for him to find a good place. If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field,” then they mean the high quality of the work he performs. Professionalism requires the employee to do more than just mechanically follow the instructions of the manager. Having received an order, a person must think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to provide for all situations that arise in the labor process in rules, orders, and instructions. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the assignment given to him efficiently and on time. This creative approach to completing tasks is called initiative.

Any work activity, be it chopping wood in the country or performing complex production processes in a factory, requires the implementation of special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. consistency and accuracy of all labor operations performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety regulations. Everyone knows that you should not disassemble electrical appliances unless they are disconnected from the power supply, make fires near wooden buildings, or drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system. Failure to comply with the rules can lead to both the breakdown of an item that was not used correctly and harm to the life and health of a person and the people around him.

Working conditions play a major role in the labor process. These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc. Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions cause major accidents, severe occupational diseases, serious injuries and even death.

During the period of formation and development of industrial production, the worker was considered as part of the production process, as an appendage of the machine. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of work duties. Workers felt that they were being dominated as individuals by machines. Accordingly, a negative attitude towards work appeared as something forced, performed only out of necessity. This phenomenon of industrial production is called the dehumanization of labor.

Currently, the problem of humanization of labor has arisen, i.e. his humanization. First of all, it is necessary to eliminate factors that threaten human health and replace heavy, monotonous physical labor with machine work. It is necessary to prepare educated, comprehensively developed workers who are capable of a creative approach to the labor functions they perform; increase the level of work culture, i.e. improve all components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in the team, etc.). An employee should not be confined to the narrow scope of the labor functions he performs. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case will work become the basis for a person’s self-realization.

The opposite of work activity is leisure activity. Scientists call all time free from work rest time. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work, doing housework, he can go for a walk or go on a trip. All these ways of spending free time involve taking active actions.

1. 
   What is human activity? How is it different from the actions of animals?
2. 
   Describe the subject, object, tools of activity. Illustrate these concepts with examples.
3. 
   How are the goals and means of activity interconnected?
4. 
   What is behavior? What are its criteria?
5. 
   What role does motive play in activity?
6. 
   What needs does a person have? What is a hierarchy of needs?
7. 
   Determine the ratio of primary and secondary needs. Why do only unsatisfied needs have the power to motivate action?
8. 
   What are the features of spiritual needs? Why are they often independent of other types of needs?
9. 
   What values ​​and ideals exist in modern society? What are your values ​​and ideals?
10. 
    What types of activities do you know? What is the peculiarity of creative activity?
11. 
    How did labor influence the processes of anthropo- and sociogenesis?
12. 
    In what areas of a person’s life and how does work activity manifest itself?
13. 
    What are the differences between productive and unproductive labor?
14. 
    What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?
15. 
    What are the goals of work?
16. 
    What role does specialization play in work?
17. 
    Explain the concepts of “profession”, “specialty”, “qualification”.
18. 
    Who is called a professional? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of high professionalism.
19. 
    What rules must be followed during work? Why is compliance with the rules necessary?
20. 
    What is the problem of humanization of labor?

Read the statements below. What do the authors say about the relationship between goals and means of activity? Have your say.

An animal believes that its whole business is to live, but a person takes life only as an opportunity to do something (A. I. Herzen).

If there is no goal, you do nothing, and you do not do anything great if the goal is insignificant (D. Diderot).

Taking the means for the end, people become disappointed in themselves and others, due to which nothing comes of all their activities or the opposite of what they strive for comes out (J.V. Goethe).

He compared those who sought small benefits at the cost of great dangers to a fisherman who fishes with a golden hook: if the hook comes off, no catch will compensate for the loss (Suetonius).

Behavior is a mirror in which everyone shows his own face (J.V. Goethe).

Not a single ethics in the world avoids the fact that the achievement of “good” goals in many cases is associated with the need to come to terms with the use of morally dubious or at least dangerous means, and with the possibility or even probability of bad side effects: and not a single one ethics in the world cannot say when and to what extent an ethically positive goal “sanctifies” ethically dangerous means and side effects (M. Weber).

What labor issues are raised in the following statements?

You must put your life in such conditions that work is necessary. Without work there cannot be a pure and joyful life (A.P. Chekhov).

Everyone must learn to abandon his individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms, and get used to accepting and executing directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion (F.W. Taylor).

Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can only be mastered with a certain specialization. Acquiring complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of one subject provides more education than mastering half a hundred different subjects (J.V. Goethe).

Corporal labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it (L.N. Tolstoy).

All my life I have loved and love mental and physical work, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I especially felt satisfied when I contributed some good guess to the last one, i.e. connected “head with hands” (I.P. Pavlov).

4. How are the meaning of human life and the meaning of life in general interconnected?

5. What goals does a person set for himself during his life journey? What goals are relevant to you at the moment?

6. What is the problem of extending human life? Is this necessary? Why?

7. Using the example of specific individuals, characterize the problems of goals

And the meaning of life, the time needed to realize these goals.

8. Read the statement of L.N. Tolstoy: “A person can consider himself as an animal among animals living today, he can consider himself both as a member of the family and as a member of society, a people living for centuries, he can and even certainly must (because to his mind is irresistibly drawn to this) to consider himself as part of the entire infinite world, living for an infinite time. And therefore, a reasonable person should have done and always did in relation to infinitesimal life phenomena that could influence his actions, what in mathematics is called integration, i.e. establish, in addition to the relationship to the immediate phenomena of life, one’s relationship to the entire world, infinite in time and space, understanding it as one whole. To understand that life is a stupid joke played on me, and still live, wash, dress, dine, talk and even write books. It was disgusting for me... I will die just like everyone else... but my life and death will have meaning for me and for everyone... a person died, but his attitude towards the world continues to affect people, even without just like during life, but a huge number of times stronger, and this action increases and grows with intelligence and love, like everything living, never stopping and without interruptions.”

Explain what he sees as the meaning of life.

9. Characterize the words of the poet V. A. Zhukovsky from the point of view of the meaning of life:

About the dear companions who gave life to our light with their companionship, Do not speak with longing: they are not there; But with gratitude: they were.

2.4. WORK AND PLAY

X J Labor is an activity that distinguishes a person from life

Votnykh. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of man as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various areas of human life. He works at work, at home, at his dacha, etc. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive work associated with the creation of a variety of material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, producing parts from which he then

assemble any product (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.) - At the end of the working day, he comes home, prepares food and devotes his free time to his favorite activity (hobby), for example, assembling a radio, carving figurines from wood, etc. In you-

In the summer at the dacha, he cultivates a vegetable garden and harvests in the fall. These are all examples of productive work.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at creating, but at servicing material objects. In the economic sphere, unproductive labor is associated with the provision of services: transportation of goods, loading them, warranty service, etc. In the domestic sphere, unproductive labor includes cleaning an apartment, washing dishes, home repairs, etc.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there was only the production of industrial products, but no repair services, then landfills would be filled with broken household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. Why buy a new thing if it makes more sense to repair the old one?

But humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated enormous cultural experience, embodied in literature, science, and art. How to classify this type of work? In this case they talk about intellectual work or spiritual production. To identify this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely, the division of labor into mental and physical.

For many centuries of its history, humanity knew mainly only physical labor. Many works were carried out using human muscle power. Sometimes humans were replaced by animals. Mental work was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the advent of machines in industrial production, physical labor was increasingly replaced by mental labor. The share of workers engaged in mental work has constantly increased. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the 20th century. It is not without reason that people started talking about the objective merging of mental and physical labor. After all, even the simplest work now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

Nature gives us very little in finished form. Without labor, you cannot even pick mushrooms and berries in the forest. In most cases, natural materials undergo complex processing. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to human needs.

Satisfaction of needs is the goal of work activity. It is necessary to realize not only the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways to satisfy it and the efforts that need to be made for this.

To achieve the goals of work, a variety of means are used. These are various tools of labor adapted to perform a particular job. When starting any work, you need to know exactly what tools are needed at the moment. You can dig up a garden at your dacha with a shovel, but the field cannot be plowed without the use of special equipment. You can dig a hole for a long time with the same shovel, or you can do it in a few minutes with an excavator. Thus, you need to know the most effective ways to influence the object of labor, i.e. to what undergoes transformation in the process of labor activity. Such methods of influencing the object of labor are called technologies, and the set of operations to transform the initial product into the final one is called technological process.

The more advanced tools and the more correct technology are used, the higher will be labor productivity. It is expressed in the quantity of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of work activity consists of separate operations, actions, and movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the worker, and in a broad sense - on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. The technology is not always applicable when loading and unloading goods, during construction, assembling the final product, etc.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, effort and energy, can be individual and collective. The individual work of a craftsman, a housewife, a writer and an artist. They independently carry out all labor operations until the final result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations are, one way or another, divided between individual subjects of the labor process: workers at a factory, builders at a house, scientists at a research institute, etc. Even initially seemingly individual work activities can represent part of the totality of work operations of many people. So, to improve the land, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people, and then sells the crop through wholesale centers. This kind of

life is called specialization or division of labor. For bo-

To effectively organize the labor process, communication between its participants is necessary. Through communication, information is transmitted and joint activities are coordinated.

The concept of “labor” is synonymous with the concept of “work”. In a broad sense they are indeed the same. However, if with difficulty we can

To call any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, work is most often called activity that is carried out for remuneration. Thus, work is a type of work activity.

The increasing complexity of work activity and the development of new types of work have led to the emergence of many professions. Their number is increasing more and more with the development of science and technology. A profession is a type of work activity with a specific nature and purpose of work functions, for example, a doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in a given profession is called a specialty. Even at the stage of training in a specialty, specialization can be carried out, for example, a surgeon or general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher, etc.

But it is not enough to have a specific specialty. You need to gain practical skills for working on it. The level of training, experience, and knowledge in a given specialty is called qualification. It is determined by rank or rank. Discharges exist among workers at industrial enterprises and among school teachers. Titles are awarded to figures in science and higher education.

The higher the qualifications of the employee, the higher his work is paid. If he changes jobs, it is easier for him to find a better place. If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field,” then they mean the high quality of the work he performs. Professionalism requires the employee to do more than just mechanically follow the instructions of the manager. Having received an order, a person must think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to provide for all situations that arise in the labor process in rules, orders, and instructions. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the assignment given to him efficiently and on time. This creative approach to completing tasks is called mini-

ciativa.

Any work activity, be it chopping wood in the country or performing complex production processes in a factory, requires the implementation of special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. consistency and correctness of all labor operations performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety regulations. Everyone knows that you should not disassemble electrical appliances unless they are disconnected from the power supply, make fires near wooden buildings, drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system, etc. Failure to comply with such rules can lead to both the breakdown of an item that has been improperly used and harm to human life and health. But labor

Human activities often take place in a team, and failure to comply with equipment operating standards and safety regulations can harm the health of other people.

Working conditions play a major role in the labor process. These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc. Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions cause severe occupational diseases, major accidents, serious injuries and even death.

During the period of formation and development of industrial production, the worker began to be considered, along with machines, as part of the production process. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of work duties. Workers felt that they were being dominated as individuals by machines. They developed a negative attitude towards work as something forced, performed only when necessary. This phenomenon of industrial production is called degu-

manization of labor.

There is currently a problem humanization of labor, those. his humanization. It is necessary to eliminate factors that threaten human health. First of all, it is necessary to replace heavy, monotonous physical labor with the work of machines. It is necessary to prepare educated, comprehensively developed workers who are capable of a creative approach to the labor functions they perform; increase the level of work culture, i.e. improve all components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in the team, etc.). An employee should not be confined to the narrow scope of the labor functions he performs. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case will work become the basis for a person’s self-realization.

The opposite of work activity is leisure activities. Lawyers call all free time from work rest time. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work, doing housework, he can go for a walk or go on a trip. All these ways of spending free time involve taking active actions. One of these actions is a game.

Game activity, unlike work activity, is focused not so much on the result as on the process itself. Games arose in ancient times and were associated with religion, art, sports, and military exercises. Scientists will probably never figure out how games originated. Perhaps they emerged from the ritual dances of ancient people, or perhaps they were a way of teaching the younger generation.

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of play believe that games are characteristic of many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during games, young animals learn the behavior patterns of representatives of their species, and mating games help attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that play is a specific human activity.

If we consider play as a type of human activity, then we can say that it is more characteristic of children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, and develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, plot, role-playing, movement, educational, sports, etc. As a person gets older, the number of games in his life decreases. Some disappear completely, remaining as childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of “adult” games are appearing, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive passion for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave his family without a livelihood, and even commit suicide.

The uniqueness of play activity, especially in childhood, is most evident in its two-dimensionality. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary environment. It is no coincidence that during the game, children pronounce the words “as if,” emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

The distribution of roles plays an important role in the game. Each of the players strives to take the main, best role. There may not be enough such roles for all participants. Therefore, the game teaches loyalty and compromise even at the stage of its preparation.

The implementation of role functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the implementation of certain rules, the same for all participants. The game can use various objects, symbols, gestures, and conventional signs. Often specific situations are modeled, which helps to include the child in the world of human relationships and teaches adult life. Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that will be useful during study, and then in the process of work.

No doubt interrelationship of labor and games. Some games, especially educational ones, involve the need to exert certain efforts, and in work activities one can find game elements. “Does it effortlessly,” they say about masters of their craft, i.e. makes it easy, relaxed, highly professional.

Questions and tasks

1. How did labor influence the processes of anthropo- and sociogenesis?

2. In what areas of a person’s life and how is labor activity manifested?

3. What are the differences between productive and unproductive labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the goals of work? How are subject, object and tools interconnected?

6. What role does specialization play in work?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualification.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed during work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanization of labor?

11. What are the differences between work and play? What role does the game play?

In human life?

12. What issues of labor are raised in the following statements: A.P. Chekhov: “We must put our lives in such conditions that labor

was necessary. Without work there cannot be a pure and joyful life.” F.W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to give up his in-

individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms and get used to accepting and executing directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion.”

J.V. Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can only be mastered with a certain specialization. Acquiring complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of one subject provides more education than mastering half a hundred different subjects.”

L.N. Tolstoy: “Corporal labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it.”

I.P. Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental and physical work, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I especially felt satisfied when I contributed some good guess to the last one, i.e. connected “head with hands.”

2.5. COMMUNICATION

v/Man is a social being and cannot live outside of society. Life in society involves interaction between its members, which is called communication.1

Communication as a process of interaction between two or more people has a lot of manifestations depending on how and under what circumstances it takes place. Thus, they distinguish between speech and non-verbal communication. Speech is the most important social property of a person. Often in a short phrase we can express what cannot be shown with facial expressions and gestures. However, non-verbal communication is just as important as verbal communication. Road signs, indexes, plates, fencing tapes - all of this carries certain information. Forms of non-verbal communication also include such methods of transmitting information as semaphore, Morse code, and flag signaling. At the junction of speech and non-speech communication is the transmission of written information.

Depending on the methods of interaction, perceptual, verbal and interactive communication are distinguished. Perceptual communication is associated with a person’s ability to grasp the mental state of the interlocutor and feel it. Such communication is often possible between close people - parents and children, lovers, spouses, old good friends. They say about such people: “they understand each other perfectly.” Verbal communication- this is communication using words, i.e. verbal communication. Its varieties include monologue (transmission of information from the speaker to listeners), exchange of remarks (verbal clarification of the actions performed) and dialogue (conversation between two or more persons).

Dialogue is the most common form of verbal communication. It presupposes the independence and activity of its participants, recognition of the importance of the point of view of each of the participants

V dialogue between the parties. Dialogue involves an exchange of opinions, waiting for an answer, and a willingness to explain one’s position. Discussions, conferences, and negotiations take place in the form of dialogue. Dialogue is the main way of transmitting information between people and in social life.

Interactive communication occurs when people interact

V in the process of joint activities: at work, study, while spending leisure time together, etc. In the process of interactive communication, people adapt to each other, sympathy and mutual understanding arise between them. There is a place for healthy competition here; It is possible that conflict situations may arise. Working in a work team, playing with friends, putting out fires with firefighters together with residents of neighboring houses - all these are types of interactive communication.

IN Due to the development of means of information transmission, the diversity of communication is increasing. Communication via the Internet, telephone communication, SMS communication. This raised the question of the relationship between communication and communication with particular relevance. Both of these phenomena involve the exchange of information, the content of which may be the same. The difference is as follows. When communicating, as is known,

but the subjects have equal rights, are active, the exchange of information leads to its addition, change, clarification. Thus, new information is formed, the owners of which become all participants in communication. Communication involves the transfer of information from one subject to another without feedback. Only the recipient receives new information. Therefore, it is not updated or clarified. Examples of communication media are radio and television.

Communication performs several important functions depending on the purpose of human interaction. Firstly, information function. Communication serves as a means of transmitting information. Secondly, teaching function. By receiving new information, people enrich their knowledge. Third, educational function. When communicating, one person can influence another in order to instill in him certain patterns of behavior. Finally, communication fulfills support function

research on joint activities of people and inclusion of a person in society

society as an equal member.

Depending on the content and the sphere in which it is carried out, several forms of communication are distinguished: everyday, business, persuasive, educational, cultural, scientific, intercultural, ritual, etc.

Household (everyday) communication - this is communication between close

with people (relatives, friends, acquaintances) in everyday life.

Business (official) communication carried out at work, in the process of work. It is in the nature of orders, instructions, directions and is aimed at achieving positive results of work activity. Within the framework of business communication, the manager acts as an active subject who influences the subordinate. The latter must follow instructions, but he has the right to express his point of view on the task (problem, situation), especially if this can help improve the quality of work.

Persuasive Communication manifests itself in the influence of one person on another in order to change his views and behavior. Thus, parents can convince their child to devote more time to study, a candidate for deputy encourages them to vote for him in elections, fire service authorities recommend that the population handle fire carefully. In such communication, the persuading subject presents arguments that help persuade the person being persuaded towards his point of view. These could be profitable prospects, the threat of punishment, etc.

Educational communication- this is the influence of the teacher on the student in order to instill in him a certain set of knowledge, skills and abilities. It is carried out both within educational institutions

tions, and in the process of mastering the knowledge necessary in everyday life.

Cultural communication associated with the interaction of people in the process of familiarization with cultural values. This could be visiting exhibitions, excursions, theaters, cinema, joint creative activities within the framework of musical, artistic and other groups, membership in various clubs, organizations, etc.

Scientific communication accompanies research activities. Science does not stand still. In order not to “reinvent the wheel,” a scientist must monitor the results of the work of his colleagues. Scientific communication occurs both at the interpersonal level and at various scientific conferences, debates, and symposia.

Intercultural communication carried out between people sharing different cultural values. This could be the interaction of representatives of different trends in music, art, literature, communication between “fathers” and “children” or representatives of different nationalities. Such communication can proceed on the basis of cooperation and cultural mutual enrichment, or it can create conflict situations.

Ritual communication- this is the fulfillment of pre-prescribed rules of behavior. It occurs constantly in everyday life. Acquaintances greet each other when they meet, shake hands, and the military salutes. The students stand up to greet the teacher as he enters the classroom. Ritual communication plays a leading role when performing religious rites, observing national and other customs, such as the marriage procedure, accepting an invitation and visiting, visiting public places, etc.

One of the types of ritual communication is etiquette, which translated from Greek means custom. Etiquette is a set of rules of behavior relating to the external manifestation of relationships towards others. This includes behavior in public places, forms of address, greetings, manners, required clothing, etc.

The most common rule in our life is greeting. It should never be noisy or unrestrained. The junior should be the first to greet the senior, and the subordinate should be the first to greet the boss. Anyone entering the room should also greet those present first. When greeting a person, you need to look into his eyes kindly. You cannot extend your hand across the table when greeting. Refusing to accept an extended hand to shake hands is considered an insult.

There are rules for dating. A junior should be introduced to a senior, a man to a woman, an employee to the manager. An individual is introduced to the group.

You must arrive on time for your appointment. If you are late, you should apologize and explain the reasons for the delay.