home In contact with Conflict management - Lecture notes on the subject “Personnel Management. Conflictology and conflict management Interaction conflict management

Conflict management - Lecture notes on the subject “Personnel Management. Conflictology and conflict management Interaction conflict management

State educational institution of higher professional education

Nizhny Novgorod State University

them. N.I. Lobachevsky

COURSE WORK

By subject : Control Theory

On the topic : Conflict Management

Completed by a student

___________________

Group ____________

Checked: _________

Vyksa, 2010

Introduction

1. Theoretical aspects of conflicts

1.1. The concept and essence of conflict

1.2. Classification of conflicts

1.3. The most typical causes of interpersonal conflicts

2. Conflict management

2.1. Diagnosis of conflict

2.2. Conflict Management

2.3. Forms of working with conflicts and methods for resolving them

2.4. Consequences of conflicts

3. Practical part

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Conflicts exist exactly as long as a person exists, since they arise only in the process of communication between people. A person spends most of his time at work, interacting with superiors and subordinates, communicating with colleagues, and building joint activities with company partners. With such a busy communication schedule, there are many reasons why people do not quite understand each other correctly, which leads to disputes. If the current situation poses a threat to the achievement of the set goals for at least one of the participants in the interaction, then a conflict arises. Conflict is usually understood as active mutually directed actions of each of the conflicting parties to achieve their goals (achieving power, acquiring material resources, etc.), colored by strong emotional experiences. According to statistics, 75 - 80% of interpersonal conflicts arise due to the material dissatisfaction of individual employees, although outwardly this may manifest itself as a discrepancy in character or personal views.

In organizations, conflicts can have constructive and destructive beginnings. Much depends on how the conflict is managed. Destructive consequences occur when conflict is either very small or very strong. When the conflict is small, it most often goes unnoticed and thus does not find its adequate resolution. The differences seem very small to motivate participants to make the necessary changes. However, they remain and cannot but influence the effectiveness of overall work. A conflict that has reached a strong state is usually accompanied by the development of stress among its participants. This leads to decreased morale and cohesion. Communication networks are being destroyed. Decisions are made in conditions of concealment or distortion of information and do not have sufficient motivating power. An organization can “disintegrate before our eyes.”

The constructive side occurs when conflict is sufficient to motivate people. Usually, for purposes objectively determined by the nature of the work performed. The development of such a conflict is accompanied by a more active exchange of information, coordination of different positions and a desire to understand each other. During the discussion of differences that cannot be taken into account, but also cannot be combined in their existing form, a compromise solution is developed, based on a creative and innovative approach to the problem. This solution leads to more efficient work in the organization.

On the one hand, conflicts are undoubtedly harmful, since they often lead to disorder, instability, and slow down decision-making. On the other hand, they have a very serious positive meaning, which is often not taken into account.

1.1 Concept and essence of conflict

There are many definitions of the term “conflict”. The most general approach to defining conflict is to define it through contradiction as a more general concept, and, above all, through social contradiction.

It is well known that the development of any society is a complex process that takes place on the basis of the emergence, development and resolution of objective contradictions. Their causes can be a variety of life problems: material resources, the most important life attitudes, power, status and role differences in the social structure, personal (emotional and psychological) differences, etc. Conflicts cover all spheres of people’s life, the entire set of social relations and social interaction. Conflict, in fact, is one of the types of social interaction, the subjects and participants of which are individuals, large and small social groups and organizations. Conflict interaction presupposes confrontation between the parties, i.e. actions directed against each other.

Conflict grows out of a conflict situation, which forms the basis of the conflict. A conflict situation is a situation in which the parties are aware of the incompatibility of the actions of one party with the norms and expectations of the other.

A conflict situation primarily includes the object of the conflict. The object of the conflict is what caused the conflict between opponents, what each of its participants claims. The object of the conflict can be material (for example, some prestigious thing) or ideal (for example, rules of conduct, status in a team, etc.).

A conflict situation also includes participants in the conflict (opponents). Participants in a conflict have different “power” and have different ranks depending on who they represent (for example, a person speaks only on his own behalf or expresses the opinion of the majority of people).

The concepts of “subject” and “participant” of a conflict are not always identical.

The subject is an active party capable of creating a conflict situation and influencing the course of the conflict depending on its interests.

A participant in a conflict may consciously take part in the conflict, or he may accidentally or against his will become involved in the conflict.

As the conflict develops, the statuses of participants and subjects may change places.

It is also necessary to distinguish between direct and indirect participants in the conflict.

The latter represent certain forces pursuing their own interests in someone else’s conflict.

Indirect participants can:

provoke conflict and contribute to its development;

contribute to reducing the intensity of the conflict or its complete

termination;

support one side or the other or both sides at the same time.

Indirect participants in a conflict constitute a certain part of the environment in which conflicts occur. Therefore, the social environment can act either as a catalyst, or as a restraining or neutral factor in the development of conflict.

1.2 Classification of conflicts

In social psychology, there are usually several main types of conflicts in an organization, depending on various criteria for their assessment. Yes, it's possible interpersonal conflict(friction between employees, confrontation between a manager and a subordinate, etc.), as well as conflicts between an individual and an organization, between groups within an organization, between different organizations (Fig. 1.1).

Some researchers identify the following types of conflicts that most often manifest themselves in organizations:

The first is between employers and employees.

The second is between divisions of large organizations.

The third is interpersonal conflicts.

The fourth is interethnic conflicts.

There are authors who consider the essence of the conflict from a legal point of view and relate social and labor conflicts to the field of legal conflictology. This attribution is based on the broad sense of a legal (legally formalized) conflict. They understand a conflict as any conflict in which the dispute is in one way or another connected with the legal relations of the parties, and the conflict itself entails legal consequences.

A conflict is a signal that something went wrong in communications or that some significant disagreements have arisen. Practice shows that there are three directions (methods) for managing conflicts: avoiding conflict, suppressing conflict and managing conflict itself. Each of these areas is implemented using special methods. Let's consider some of them, as well as a general algorithm for influencing a conflict situation and recommendations regarding behavior in conflict conditions.

There are many methods of conflict management. Broadly speaking, they can be divided into several groups, each of which has its own area of application:

intrapersonal;
structural;
interpersonal;
negotiation;
aggressive response.

Intrapersonal methods influence an individual and consist in the correct organization of one’s own behavior, the ability to express one’s point of view without causing a defensive reaction on the part of the opponent. The method of conveying to another person one or another attitude towards a certain subject without accusations or demands, but so that the other person changes his attitude (the so-called “I-statement” method) is often used. This method allows a person to defend his position without turning his opponent into an opponent. “I-statement” is especially effective when a person is angry or dissatisfied. It allows you to express your opinion about the current situation and express fundamental principles. This method is especially useful when a person wants to convey something to another, but does not want him to perceive it negatively and go on the attack.

Structural methods impact primarily on participants in organizational conflicts arising due to incorrect distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities, poor work organization, unfair system of motivation and incentives for workers, etc. Such methods include: clarifying job requirements, using coordination mechanisms, developing or clarifying organizational goals, and creating reasonable reward systems.

Clarification of job requirements is one of the effective methods of preventing and resolving conflicts. Each employee must clearly understand what his duties, responsibilities, and rights are. The method is implemented through the preparation of appropriate job descriptions (position description) and the development of documents regulating the distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities across management levels.
Use of coordination mechanisms consists of involving structural units of the organization or officials who, if necessary, can intervene in the conflict and help resolve controversial issues between the conflicting parties. One of the most common mechanisms is the hierarchy of authority, which streamlines the interaction of people, decision-making and information flows within an organization. If employees have disagreements on some issue, the conflict can be avoided by contacting the general manager with a proposal to make the necessary decision. The principle of unity of command facilitates the use of hierarchy to manage a conflict situation, since subordinates are obliged to carry out the decisions of their leader.
Developing or clarifying corporate goals allows you to unite the efforts of all employees of the organization and direct them to achieve the set goals.
Creating reasonable reward systems can also be used to manage a conflict situation, since fair rewards have a positive effect on people’s behavior and help avoid destructive conflicts. It is important that the reward system does not reward negative behavior by individuals or groups.

Interpersonal methods suggest that when a conflict situation is created or the conflict itself begins to unfold, its participants need to choose the form and style of their further behavior in order to minimize damage to their interests. Along with such basic styles of behavior in conflict as adaptation (compliance), avoidance, confrontation, cooperation and compromise, attention should be paid to coercion and problem solving.

Coercion means trying to force someone to accept their point of view at any cost. The one who tries to do this is not interested in the opinions of others. A person who uses this approach usually behaves aggressively and uses power through coercion to influence others. The disadvantage of this style is that it suppresses the initiative of subordinates, creating a greater likelihood that some important factors will not be taken into account, since only one point of view is presented. This style may cause resentment, especially among the younger and more educated part of the staff.

Solution means recognizing differences of opinion and being willing to listen to other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find a path of action acceptable to all parties. The one who uses this style does not seek to achieve his goal at the expense of others, but rather seeks the best option for overcoming a conflict situation. In complex situations where diversity of thought and accurate information are essential to sound decision making, conflicting opinions must be encouraged and the situation managed using a problem-solving style.

Negotiations, as a method of resolving conflicts, are a set of tactics aimed at finding mutually acceptable solutions for the conflicting parties. In order for negotiations to become possible, certain conditions must be met:

the existence of interdependence between the parties to the conflict;
absence of significant differences in the capabilities (powers) of the parties to the conflict;
correspondence of the stage of development of the conflict to the possibilities of negotiations;
participation in negotiations between parties who can make decisions in the current situation.

Aggressive responses- methods that are extremely undesirable for overcoming conflict situations. The use of these methods leads to resolving a conflict situation from a position of strength, including the use of brute force and violence. However, there are situations when conflict resolution is possible only by these methods.

Practice shows that there are three directions (methods) of conflict management:

avoiding conflict;
suppression of conflict;
conflict management itself.

Each of these areas is implemented using special methods. Let's look at some of them.

Avoiding conflict. The advantage of this method is that the decision is usually made quickly. This method is used when a given conflict is unnecessary, when it does not fit the situation in the organization, or the costs of a possible conflict are very high. It is also advisable to use it in cases:

the banality of the problem underlying the conflict;
the presence of more important problems that require solutions;
the need to cool flared passions;
the need to gain time to collect the necessary information and avoid making an immediate decision;
connecting other forces to resolve the conflict;
presence of fear of the opposing side or impending conflict;
when the timing of an impending conflict goes wrong.

A variation of the method of avoiding conflict is the method of inaction. With this method, the development of events is left to the mercy of time, goes with the flow, spontaneously. Inaction is justified in conditions of complete uncertainty, when it is impossible to foresee possible scenarios and predict consequences.

Another variation of this method is concessions or accommodations. In this case, one side makes concessions by reducing its own demands. This method is used when a party discovers that they are in the wrong; when the subject of the collision is more important for the other party; if it is necessary to minimize losses, when superiority is clearly on the other side, etc.

Conflict Suppression in turn involves the use of various methods. For example, hidden action method applies in cases where:

a combination of circumstances makes open conflict impossible;
there is no desire to deal with open conflict due to fear of loss of face;
it is impossible for one reason or another to involve the opposite side in active opposition;
an imbalance of power, a lack of parity in the resources of the opposing parties, exposes the weaker party to increased risk or causes unnecessary costs.

The techniques used in these cases include both “gentlemanly” and forms of influence that are far from them on the opposite side. Behind-the-scenes negotiations and “divide and conquer” politics can take place here. It is not uncommon to create additional obstacles in the form of hidden or open resistance.

The general algorithm for influencing a conflict situation can be reduced to the following.

1. Acknowledge the existence of a conflict, i.e. the presence of opposing goals and methods among opponents, to identify the participants in the conflict themselves. In practice, these issues are not so easy to resolve; it can be difficult to admit and say out loud that you are in a state of conflict with an employee on some issue. Sometimes a conflict has existed for a long time, people suffer, but there is no open recognition of it; Each chooses their own form of behavior in relation to the other, but there is no joint discussion and search for a way out of the current situation.

2. Determine the possibility of negotiations. After recognizing the existence of a conflict and the impossibility of quickly resolving it, it is advisable to agree on the possibility of holding negotiations and clarify what kind of negotiations: with or without a mediator; who can be a mediator who equally suits the conflicting parties.

3. Agree on the negotiation procedure: determine where, when and how negotiations will begin, i.e. stipulate the timing, place, procedure for conducting negotiations, and the start time of the joint discussion.

4. Identify the range of issues that constitute the subject of the conflict. The problem is to determine what is in conflict and what is not. At this stage, joint ways to solve the problem are developed, the positions of the parties are clarified, points of greatest disagreement and points of possible rapprochement of positions are determined.

5. Develop solution options. The conflicting parties offer several possible solutions, calculating the costs for each of them, taking into account the possible consequences.

6. Make an agreed decision. As a result of mutual discussion of possible solutions, the parties come to a common decision, which should be presented in the form of a communiqué, resolution, cooperation agreement, etc. Sometimes, in particularly complex or important cases, documents can be drawn up and adopted at the end of each stage of negotiations.

7. Put the decision into practice. The conflicting parties must think through how to organize the implementation of the decision made, determine the tasks of each of the conflicting parties in implementing the results of the negotiations, recording them in an agreed upon decision. The inability to defuse a conflict situation and understand mistakes and miscalculations can cause constant tension. The main reason for the conflict is that people depend on each other, everyone needs sympathy and understanding, the location and support of the other, they need someone to share their beliefs. A conflict is a signal that something went wrong in communications or that some significant disagreements have arisen.

Ardalyon Kibanov, Doctor of Economic Sciences, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Head of the Department of Personnel Management at the State University of Management.

A conflict is a signal that something went wrong in communications or that some significant disagreements have arisen. Practice shows that there are three ways to manage conflicts: avoiding conflict, suppressing conflict and managing the conflict itself. Let's consider a general algorithm for influencing a conflict situation, as well as recommendations regarding behavior in conflict conditions.

1. Conflict management

Practice shows that there are three directions (methods) for managing conflicts:

avoiding conflict;
suppression of conflict;
conflict management itself.

Avoiding conflict. The advantage of this method is that the decision is usually made quickly. This method is used when a given conflict is unnecessary, when it does not fit the situation in the organization, or the costs of a possible conflict are very high. It is also advisable to use it in cases:

the banality of the problem underlying the conflict;
the presence of more important problems that require solutions;
the need to cool flared passions;
the need to gain time to collect the necessary information and avoid making an immediate decision;
connecting other forces to resolve the conflict;
presence of fear of the opposing side or impending conflict;
when the timing of an impending conflict goes wrong.

A variation of the method of avoiding conflict is the method inaction. With this method, the development of events is left to the mercy of time, goes with the flow, spontaneously. Inaction is justified in conditions of complete uncertainty, when it is impossible to foresee possible scenarios and predict consequences.

Another variation of this method is concessions or accommodations. In this case, one side makes concessions by reducing its own demands. This method is used when a party discovers that they are in the wrong; when the subject of the collision is more important for the other party; if it is necessary to minimize losses, when superiority is clearly on the other side, etc.

Suppressing conflict, in turn, involves the use of various methods. For example, the method of hidden actions is used in cases where:

a combination of circumstances makes open conflict impossible;
there is no desire to deal with open conflict due to fear of loss of face;
it is impossible for one reason or another to involve the opposite side in active opposition;
an imbalance of power, a lack of parity in the resources of the opposing parties, exposes the weaker party to increased risk or causes unnecessary costs.

2. Conflict resolution

The general algorithm for influencing a conflict situation can be presented as follows.

1. Recognize the existence of a conflict, those. the presence of opposing goals and methods among opponents, to identify the participants in the conflict themselves. In practice, these issues are not so easy to resolve; it can be difficult to admit and say out loud that you are in a state of conflict with an employee on some issue. Sometimes a conflict has existed for a long time, people suffer, but there is no open recognition of it; Each chooses their own form of behavior in relation to the other, but there is no joint discussion and search for a way out of the current situation.

2. Determine the possibility of negotiations. After recognizing the existence of a conflict and the impossibility of quickly resolving it, it is advisable to agree on the possibility of holding negotiations and clarify what kind of negotiations: with or without a mediator; who can be a mediator who equally suits the conflicting parties.

3. Agree on the negotiation procedure: determine where, when and how negotiations will begin, i.e. stipulate the timing, place, procedure for conducting negotiations, and the start time of the joint discussion.

4. Identify the range of issues that constitute the subject of the conflict. The problem is to determine what is in conflict and what is not. At this stage, joint ways to solve the problem are developed, the positions of the parties are clarified, points of greatest disagreement and points of possible rapprochement of positions are determined.

5. Develop solutions. The conflicting parties offer several possible solutions, calculating the costs for each of them, taking into account the possible consequences.

6. Make an agreed decision. As a result of mutual discussion of possible solutions, the parties come to a common decision, which should be presented in the form of a communiqué, resolution, cooperation agreement, etc. Sometimes, in particularly complex or important cases, documents can be drawn up and adopted at the end of each stage of negotiations.

7. Implement the decision made in practice. The conflicting parties must think through how to organize the implementation of the decision made, determine the tasks of each of the conflicting parties in implementing the results of the negotiations, recording them in an agreed upon decision. The inability to defuse a conflict situation and understand mistakes and miscalculations can cause constant tension.

The main reason for the conflict is that people depend on each other, each needs sympathy and understanding, location and support of the other; he needs someone to share his beliefs. A conflict is a signal that something went wrong in communications or that some significant disagreements have arisen.

3. Behavior in conflict

This topic is one of the most important in the course structure, as it equips students with knowledge on effective conflict management in practice. The purpose of this chapter is to form a knowledge system on effectively influencing a conflict situation by making scientifically based decisions.

Basic terms and concepts:

conflict management,

conflict diagnosis,

conflict forecasting,

conflict prevention,

promoting conflict

conflict management,

model for making scientifically based decisions on conflict management.

Contents of the conflict management process

Conflict management can be viewed from two aspects: internal And external The first of them is to manage one’s own behavior in conflict interactions. This aspect is psychological in nature. The external aspect of conflict management reflects the organizational and technological aspects of this complex process, in which the subject of management can be a manager, leader or mediator.

The concept of “control” has a very wide scope of application - technical, biological, social, etc. According to social control systems, it involves a process of targeted influence on an object in order to optimize the parameters of the social system in accordance with objective laws. As for the concept of “conflict management,” we can give it the following definition.

Conflict management - this is a purposeful influence on the dynamics of the conflict, determined by objective laws, in the interests of the development or destruction of the social system to which the conflict is related.

Since, in functional terms, conflicts differ in inconsistency (functional and dysfunctional), for us in this definition the constructive aspect of conflicts is most important. the main objective Conflict management is to prevent dysfunctional conflicts and adequately resolve functional ones.

Conflict management must be preceded by a stage) diagnostics that is, determining the main components of the conflict, its causes. Diagnostics helps determine:

Root causes of conflict (nature of conflict)

Participants in conflict confrontation;

Dynamics of conflict development;

Positions of the conflicting parties (goal, needs, expectations, etc.);

Methods, means and forms of conflict resolution.

Determining the nature of the conflict. At the first stage, the problem is described and

the subject of the conflict is determined. For example: the conflict arose due to a lack of trust between the individual and the group. In this case, the problem can be formulated as “bad relationships.”

Identification of parties to the conflict. After clarifying the common problem, the parties to the conflict are identified. This list can include individuals, groups, and organizations. It is advisable to group the participants in conflict interactions according to their goals and needs. For example, if a conflict arose between two colleagues in a team (subjects of the conflict), then, in addition to these persons, the participants in the conflict may include the managers of these subordinates, specialists, and other colleagues who were indirectly related to this. It is important to determine which of the conflict subjects they personally support. Based on this grouping, it is possible to analyze the role factors of conflict interaction.

Defining Positions subjects of conflict and their roles. At this stage, it is supposed to find out the basic needs, motives, and fears of the participants in the conflict interaction, because they determine the actions of people.

Determining conflict resolution methods- the final stage of diagnosis, which should take into account the results of the preliminary analysis and be based on a systematic approach. We will consider its content in more detail in the next chapter.

Conflict management is a complex process that includes the following: activities:

Forecasting conflict and assessing its functional orientation;

Preventing or promoting conflict;

Conflict management;

Ending the conflict.

Let's take a closer look at each of the activities in the process of effective conflict management.

Forecasting conflict - this is one of the most important activities of management subjects, aimed at identifying the causes of the conflict in potential development.

The main sources of conflict prediction are the study of subjective and objective conditions and factors of interaction between people, as well as individual psychological characteristics of the individual. An important place in predicting conflicts belongs to the constant analysis of the causes of conflicts.

As practice has proven, predicting a conflict is possible only for a short period of time and with a small degree of probability. If the cause of the conflict arose suddenly, and the pre-conflict situation is lightning fast, then there is almost no possibility of predicting the conflict. But more often the pre-conflict situation has enough time to diagnose the conflict.

Table 3.1.

conflict stage
Latent (emergence and development of a conflict situation)	forecasting Warning / Stimulation
Demonstrative (awareness of a conflict situation by at least one of the participants in social interaction)	Prevention/Promotion
Incident (beginning of open social interaction)	regulation
Escalation, peak (development of open conflict)	regulation
Balanced opposition, finale (end of conflict)	Regulations. completion
Partial and complete normalization of relations	Completion.

Conflict Prevention - this type of activity is aimed at preventing the emergence of conflict. Conflict prevention is based on their forecasting. Based on the information received about the causes of the brewing unwanted conflict, active efforts are being carried out to neutralize the entire complex of factors causing the conflict.

Many forms of conflict prevention activities are determined by the diversity of the conflicts themselves. The most effective form of conflict prevention is considered to be the elimination of their causes. There are partial and complete conflict prevention. Partial is to eliminate one of the causes of the conflict, or to limit those negative impacts. Complete prevention - neutralization of all factors causing conflict.

According to experts, the main conditions (factors) that contribute to the prevention of destructive conflicts are:

1. Creating favorable conditions for people’s livelihoods. These include material support, decent working and studying conditions, opportunities for self-realization, and time for rest.

2. Development of legal and other regulatory procedures for resolving typical pre-conflict situations (for example, appointment to a position according to the developed regulations on the competition).

3. Fair and open distribution of material goods.

Supporting and strengthening cooperation and mutual assistance relationships is the central problem of the whole tactics and conflict prevention. The solution is complex and includes methods of a socio-psychological, organizational, managerial and moral and ethical nature.

The most important of the socio-psychological methods aimed at adjusting the thoughts, feelings and moods of subjects of conflict interaction are:

1. Consent method which involves carrying out activities aimed at attracting potential conflictants to a common cause, during the implementation of which a more or less wide field of common interests appears among potential opponents, they get to know each other better, learn to cooperate, and jointly solve emerging problems.

2. The method of goodwill or empathy, aimed at developing the ability to empathize and sympathize with other people, to understand their internal states. This method requires the exclusion of unmotivated hostility, aggressiveness, and incorrectness from relationships. The use of this method is especially important in crisis, extreme situations, when the expression of regret and sympathy, complete and prompt information about the events occurring are especially important.

3. Method of maintaining a partner's reputation, respect for his dignity. If any disagreements arise that accompany a conflict, the most important method of preventing negative developments is to recognize the merits of the partner and show due respect for his personality. By recognizing the advantages and authority of our opponent, we thereby stimulate the corresponding attitude of the partner towards our advantages and authority. This method is used not only to prevent conflict, but also in all forms of interpersonal communication.

4. Another effective tool for conflict prevention is mutual complement method. It involves relying on the partner’s abilities that we ourselves possess. Thus, creative people are often not inclined to monotonous, routine, technical work. This kind of work is usually done by less talented and bright people. However, for the success of a business, both are needed.

5. Method of not discriminating against people requires the exclusion of demonstrative emphasizing the advantage of one partner over the other, and even better, any disagreements between them. For this purpose, management practice, especially in Japanese firms, often uses elements of the same material incentives for all workers in an organization or institution. Of course, one can criticize the egalitarian method of distribution as unfair, inferior to the method of individual reward. But from the point of view of conflict prevention, the equal distribution method has undoubted advantages, allowing one to avoid the appearance of such negative emotions as envy and resentment, which provoke conflict. Therefore, in the interests of increasing the anti-conflict potential of the organization, it is advisable to share merits and awards among everyone, even if they largely belong to one person. The value of this particular rule is emphasized by the old Japanese proverb: “Even if you do a better job than others, do not lead like a winner.”

An important role in conflict prevention is played by the knowledge and compliance of the participants in the conflict interaction business ethics standards . The unwritten ethical standards that guide one way or another the participants in business relations in order to prevent possible contradictions and conflicts can be reduced to the following simple requirements:

1. Don't be late. Being late may be seen by your partner as a sign of disrespect for him. If you are delayed due to unforeseen circumstances, it is better to inform us in advance. It is generally accepted that punctuality is an essential requirement of business etiquette.

2. Be laconic, don't say too much. The content of this requirement is to protect confidential official information in the same way as your personal secrets. It is well known that the protection of official secrets is one of the most important business problems, which often becomes a source of serious conflicts. This norm also applies to secrets from the personal life of a colleague that became known to you by chance.

3. Be friendly and welcoming. Compliance with this rule is especially important when colleagues or subordinates are overly picky about you. And in this case, you must treat them politely and kindly. We must remember that no one likes to work with people who are unbalanced, grouchy, or capricious. Politeness and friendliness are needed for communication at all levels: with bosses, subordinates, friends, no matter how provocatively they sometimes behave.

4. Have pity on people, think not only about yourself, but also about others. Respect the opinions of others, even if they do not coincide with yours. Do not use sharp objections in this case, if you do not want to be in the category of people who recognize the existence of only two opinions: yours and the wrong one. It is people of this type who often become the initiators of conflict.

5. Watch your clothes and appearance. This means that you need to be able to fit organically into your work environment, among workers of your level. Sure, it's a small thing, but one that could hurt your career advancement.

6. Speak and write in good language. This means that everything you say and write must be presented in literate, literary language. Make sure you never use swear words, even in private conversations, as this can develop into a bad habit that will be difficult to break.

7. Use humor as a means of preventing conflict. Among the various means of preventing conflicts, we should not forget about one more thing - the sense of humor inherent in people. The presence of this feeling is one of the evidence of a person’s spiritual health, his optimistic view of the world and people. Humor is sometimes defined as a “smile of reconciliation,” a person’s ability to combine and reconcile the seemingly incompatible and irreconcilable: good and evil, sublime and petty, serious and funny. Being an effective tool for the favorable coexistence of people, humor helps to defuse tensions in human relationships and is a good way to “let off steam” and evoke positive feelings. Bernard Shaw said that sometimes you have to make people laugh to distract them from wanting to hang you.

Of course, one cannot hope that the conflict can be completely resolved only with a “smile of reconciliation,” but it is quite possible to ease its severity with the help of a successful joke. Humor calms people even where it seems there is no longer any hope for reconciliation.

The ability to understand humor, being an important positive quality of a person, serves as one of the components of his prestige. Of course, this tool should be used with a sense of proportion, remembering that with the help of humor you can achieve only a short-term increase in the positive activity of people. When using a joke, you must not allow the whole matter to turn into a joke. However, this means should not be neglected, since in such a complex and responsible matter as conflict prevention and resolution, there can be no trifles.

All the psychological requirements discussed above, organizational and management principles, as well as positive moral standards make any organization reliable and stable. All these norms are a long-term basis for the prevention and constructive resolution of conflicts.

The process of effective communication at the conflict prevention stage

directly related to the level of rationality in an individual’s behavior. It is known that the release of emotions before a conflict necessarily moves it into the conflict phase. Therefore, managing emotions in conflict interactions is one of the necessary conditions for preventing conflict.

There is a large number emotional control technician .

One such technique is visualization. The process of visualization comes down to being able to imagine yourself in some kind of work or in the process of communicating with someone during the growth of emotional stress.

Second technique - grounding. In this version, you imagine anger entering you as a beam of negative energy. Then you imagine that this energy gradually descends and calmly goes into the ground.

Another technique is proposed by D. Scott. It's design and destruction in form projections. This method involves projecting your anger onto some imaginary screen. Then you take an imaginary ray gun and destroy the projection (this gives vent to the desire to commit violent acts). With each hit, your irritation weakens and eventually disappears altogether.

The next method is cleansing the energy aura. To do this, you should stand or sit down and make a series of movements with your arms above your head, imagining that this is how you cleanse the energy shell of the body.

All these methods act only at the level of your psyche and, of course, do not pretend to have a real energetic effect. However, conflict is a product of your mental activity. Therefore, it is necessary to fight him according to his own rules and on his territory.

Summarizing all of the above, it should be emphasized that conflict prevention is facilitated by everything that ensures the preservation of normal business relations and strengthens mutual trust.

Stimulating conflict - this type of activity is aimed at provoking, causing conflict. Stimulation is justified in relation to constructive conflicts, as it leads to increased activity to solve vital problems. In this case, a conflict may be initiated to neutralize something else. The means of stimulating conflict can be very diverse: bringing up a problematic issue for discussion at a meeting or seminar; criticism of the situation at the meeting; speaking with critical materials in the media, etc.

Conflict management - this activity is aimed at weakening and limiting the conflict, ensuring its development towards resolution. Regulation as a complex process represents a number of stages that are important to consider in management activities.

The first stage is the recognition of the reality of the conflict by the parties in conflict.

The second stage is the legitimization of the conflict. Legitimizing a conflict involves reaching an agreement between the conflicting parties on recognition and compliance with established norms and rules of conflict interaction.

The third stage is the institutionalization of the conflict, that is, the creation of appropriate bodies and working groups to regulate the conflict.

In the process of conflict management, the following should be used: technologies:

Information Technology - eliminating the information gap in the conflict; exclusion of false, distorted information from the information field; eliminating rumors.

Communication technologies - organizing communication between subjects of conflict interaction and their supporters; ensuring effective communication.

Social-psychological technologies- work with leaders of informal microgroups; reducing social tension and improving the socio-psychological climate in the team.

Organizational technologies - resolving personnel issues; vykorisgannya methods of reward and punishment; changing the conditions of interaction between employees.

The last activity related to the conflict management process is ending the conflict. In conflictology science, it is customary to distinguish the following main ones: forms of ending the conflict :

1. Conflict resolution is a joint activity of its participants aimed at ending opposition and solving the problem that led to the clash. Conflict resolution presupposes the activity of both parties to change the conditions of interaction and eliminate the causes of the conflict.

2. Conflict resolution - This is the resolution of contradictions with the participation of a third party.

3. Decay of conflict- this is a temporary cessation of opposition while maintaining the main signs of the conflict: the presence of contradictions and tense relations.

Reasons for the fading of the conflict:

Depletion of resources on both sides;

Loss of motive to fight;

Reorientation of motive.

4. Resolving Conflict- this is the impact on the conflict, as a result of which its main structural components are eliminated.

Ways to resolve the conflict:

Removing one of the opponents from the conflict;

Elimination of interaction between opponents for a long time;

Elimination of the object of conflict;

Eliminating the deficit of the conflict object.

5. Growing into another conflict - into between the parties, a new, more significant contradiction arises.

The very form of ending a conflict is conflict resolution. The resolution of the conflict can be complete or incomplete. Complete conflict resolution is the elimination of the causes, the subject of the conflict and the conflict situation. If the conflict is not fully resolved, not all causes or conflict situations are eliminated. Incomplete resolution of a conflict may be a stage on the way to its complete resolution.

Conflict resolution is a multi-stage process that has its own logic and includes the following stages:

1. Analytical stage - collection and assessment of information on the following issues:

Object of conflict;

Opponent;

Own position;

Reasons and immediate cause;

Social environment.

2. Forecasting a solution option:

Most favorable;

Least favorable;

What will happen if you just stop doing it?

3. Actions to implement the planned plan.

4. Correction of the plan.

5. Monitoring the effectiveness of actions.

6. Assessing the results of the conflict.

Conflict resolution strategies- these are the main lines of action of opponents aimed at exiting the conflict. The concept of strategy has three essential points that should be taken into account when analyzing conflicts and choosing adequate actions.

Firstly, the strategy contains the most general guidelines and guidelines for the outcome of the conflict. Obviously, the formal logical meaning of such guidelines comes down to four options:

One-way winning;

One-sided loss;

Mutual loss;

Win-win.

These options are reflected in the specific negotiation strategies of R. Fischer, V. Yura, V. Mastenbroek and other researchers. Such strategies are:

Win-lose;

Lose-win;

Lose-lose;

Win-win.

Table 3.2. the main conflict resolution strategies are presented in accordance with the classification of G. Fischer, V. Jura and V. Mastenbroek.

Table 3.2.

Conflict Resolution Strategies

type of strategy	strategic goals	strategy factors
Win-lose	Winning at the expense of your opponent's loss	Subject of the conflict; inflated image of a conflict situation; support for the conflictant in the form of incitement from participants in social interaction; conflict personality
Lose-Win	Avoiding conflict, yielding to an opponent	Subject of the conflict; understated image of a conflict situation; intimidation in the form of threats, bluffs, etc.; low volitional qualities, conformist personality type
Lose-lose	Self-sacrifice for the death of the enemy	Subject of the conflict; inadequate image of a conflict situation; personality of those in conflict (natural or situational aggressiveness); lack of vision of other options for solving problems
Win-win	achievements mutually beneficial agreements	Subject of the conflict; an adequate image of a conflict situation; the presence of favorable conditions for a constructive solution to the problem

Secondly, attitudes and orientations towards results in a particular strategy are formed among the subjects of interaction on the basis of an analysis of the relationship of interests, as well as capabilities, forces and means. It is important to consider factors influencing the analysis:

Personal qualities of the conflicting person, his thinking, experience, character, temperament;

Information provided by the subject of the conflict about himself and his opponent. When a person receives the first conflict blow in his address, the intentions attributed to the opponent are of great importance. Only a person can foresee someone else's intentions. This is not characteristic of any animal. In the event of a conflict, it is very important to evaluate the intention that you attribute to the attacker;

Other subjects of social interaction located in the conflict zone;

Thirdly, the choice of one or another strategy in the negotiation process.

In most conflicts, the most common tactics for resolving them are win-lose and win-win tactics. There are a number of reasons for the particular prevalence of these tactics, which are equally designed to win, the victory of one side, and the loss, defeat in the conflict of the other side. The first reason is of a historical nature: it was the “win-lose” tactics, as the simplest ones, that were the first methods of conflict resolution mastered by people. Over thousands of years of their use, people have accumulated a wealth of experience using these tactics in a wide variety of situations. The second reason is of a psychological nature: over time, the use of these tactics acquired an almost automatic, reflexive character, became a stable psychological stereotype, and was deeply rooted in the mind. If avoiding a conflict is not possible, people quite often mobilize all resources to force others to comply. This reaction often occurs unconsciously and is still universal. Although today we do not flee from the enemy by fleeing into the forest and do not fight him with arrows, most of the so-called “new forms” of conflict resolution ultimately come down to two tactics: 1) avoidance of communication, flight, attempt to break off relationships ; 2) forceful techniques, wrestling, attempts to defeat another by force.

In both of these tactics, one way or another, the same approach is implemented, expressed by the “win-lose” formula. The widespread use of this approach is evidenced by such widespread phenomena in modern society as dismissals of workers, divorces, socio-political conflicts in the form of strikes, terrorist attacks, cold and hot wars. The losses from using this kind of conflict resolution methods are so great that they are difficult to account for.

In this regard, modern conflict management evaluates tactics of avoiding struggle based on the “win-lose” principle mostly negatively, qualifying them as a manifestation of irrational, “false reflexes” when resolving conflicts.

They are contrasted with civilized, thoroughly rationalized methods based on the “win-win” principle: 1) the tactics of unilateral concessions and 2) the tactics of mutually beneficial agreements.

1. Tactics of unilateral concessions One has to resort to the tactics of unilateral concessions when refusing them threatens one of the parties with significantly more serious immediate losses, or when there is a situation of choice, as they say, “between life and wallet.” A similar situation often arises when negotiating with criminals who have taken hostages.

The method of unilateral concessions has its weaknesses, since it does not fully, but only partially implements the “win-win” principle. After all, when it is applied, only one side receives a benefit, and the other one way or another will be at a loss, which sooner or later may turn out to be a source of new tension.

Therefore, the tactic of mutual concessions is recognized as a more reliable, effective method of conflict resolution; in the future, it can become the most reliable basis for long-term cooperation.

2. Tactics of mutual concessions. This tactic is increasingly used in democratic countries and is considered in conflictology as a classic, that is, an exemplary method of resolving conflict situations.

For the successful implementation of this method, a certain set of favorable conditions is required. Such conditions include: 1) the readiness of both parties to realize their goals through mutual concessions on the “win-win” or “give-get” principle; 2) the complete impossibility of resolving the conflict by force or by withdrawal, that is, according to the “win-lose” principle.

Concluding our consideration of the problem of conflict resolution, we note that all methods and techniques of conflict resolution are conventionally divided into negative and positive. Negative methods mean those methods that should not be used in a conflict situation if the participants want a constructive solution to it, especially within the framework of the tactics discussed above, based on the “win-win” principle. These include the following methods:

Constantly interrupting a partner during a conversation, creating obstacles for him to freely express his position;

Showing hostility or antipathy towards an opponent;

Petty quibbles not related to the essence of the matter;

Humiliation of a partner, negative assessment of his personality;

Attempts to intimidate the interlocutor, threats;

Emphasizing the difference between yourself and your partner;

Reducing the partner’s contribution to the common cause and exaggerating one’s own merits;

Systematic refusals in response to constructive proposals from a partner, constant denial of the validity of his words;

A manifestation of insincerity and hypocrisy.

Negative techniques at the non-verbal level include: violation of a partner’s personal space, disparaging gestures towards him, etc.

The use of the above-mentioned techniques and methods can lead to an increase in emotional tension and increased conflict, even in conditions when its constructive solution seems very close.

Positive methods of conflict resolution are of a different nature. They are aimed not only at resolving conflict situations, but can also play a preventive role, preventing conflicts, especially destructive ones.

An experienced leader, accumulating experience in conflict management, gradually turns it into a kind of report of rules, a code of principles. One of such reports on the rules of conduct in a conflict situation is offered by the domestic conflict specialist V.I. Andreev. These are the following rules:

1. Do not try to dominate anyone at any time.

2. Be principled, but don't fight for the sake of principles.

3. Remember that straightforwardness is good, but not always.

4. Criticize, but don’t criticize!

5. Smile more often! A smile costs little, but is highly valued.

6. Traditions are good, but up to a certain limit.

7. You also need to be able to tell the truth.

8. Be independent, but not overconfident!

9. Don’t turn persistence into importunity!

10. Don’t expect justice for yourself if you yourself are unfair.

11. Do not overestimate your abilities and capabilities.

12. Do not show initiative where it is not needed.

13. Show kindness!

14. Show restraint and calm in any situation.

1 5. Realize yourself in creativity, not in conflicts!

Such codes are not only a generalization of the content of modern conflict management theory, but also serve as practical guidelines for regulating the behavior of people in a conflict situation.

A person living in the modern world is, of course, subject to various kinds of influences and influences from the reality around him. This can manifest itself in a person’s attitude towards life situations, circumstances and other people, and in the attitude of the people around him, and, of course, in a person’s attitude towards himself. But perhaps the greatest impact on the mood, worldview, mental manifestations and even the direction of actions and activities of each of us is exerted by our relationships with other people.

This question is very deep and multifaceted, and it is not possible to consider it within the framework of one article or a small series of articles. Although, if you set such a goal, and break the question itself into several separate components, then the desired result can be achieved. That is why on the pages of our Internet resource “” we have already covered in detail such topics as, and many others. Surely, each of these trainings, if you studied them, could teach you something new and useful. We devote this training to one of the most important and integral components of human life - conflicts.

Having information about conflicts and being able to manage them is a useful skill for every person. As you know, all people differ from each other not only physically, but also in character, mental organization, interests, tastes, morals, etc. And communication between people is not always friendly and constructive - for certain reasons, tense relationships and conflicts arise between people. Moreover, these can be not just disagreements, disputes, scandals and minor troubles, but also conflictual relationships on a larger scale, up to fights, strikes, pickets, uprisings and even world wars. To verify this, you can simply watch morning or evening news programs.

Conflicts await a person literally at every step: at home and at work, in transport and public places, in our hometown, where we spent our whole lives, and in another country where we went on vacation. Conflicts cannot be avoided. And even if you, as they say now, are a mega-positive person, in life, one way or another, situations will arise when you need to prove your point of view, listen to something unpleasant addressed to you, disagree with something and, quite probably even use force to assert their rights or protect themselves or loved ones.

Naturally, the likelihood that you and I will be able to influence the situation in the world is negligible. Yes and presented conflict management training That's not what it's designed for. Its task is to give you important, necessary and useful information that you can successfully apply in practice, and which can teach you to interact more effectively with people around you, find a common language with them, avoid “sharp corners”, prevent negativity and aggression, and also behave exactly as required by each individual tense situation, if it does arise.

From our training on conflict management, you will learn, firstly, what it is - conflicts and conflict management. Secondly, we will talk about what the subject of conflictology is, the tasks and functions of conflictology, and what are the foundations of conflictology. Thirdly, we will talk about what problems exist in conflictology today, and what goal modern conflictology pursues. But it is important to understand that theoretical conflictology and applied conflictology are two parts of one whole. For this reason, we will also give you practical information on how conflict prevention, conflict management, conflict prevention and resolution are carried out. Studying the course will be most productive if you use additional materials, so after you have studied the training lessons, pay attention to books and textbooks, as well as other auxiliary tools, which are dedicated to a separate section of the course.

What is conflictology?

Conflictology is a discipline that studies the patterns of processes such as the emergence, development, resolution and completion of conflict.

One of the people who laid the foundations of the general theory of conflict was Karl Marx. He developed the doctrine of contradiction and developed a model of social change. After him, the foundations of the doctrine of conflict were formulated by the American sociologist Jonathan Turner. In addition, the American sociologist Lewis Coser and the German sociologist and philosopher Georg Simmel made a huge contribution to the development of conflictology science. If we study other sources, we can conclude that mainly sociologists, psychologists and political scientists took part in the development of conflictology in general, both in our country and abroad.

However, several significant circumstances allow us to draw a line between domestic and foreign conflictology:

Abroad, attempts to create a theory of conflict were made back in the 19th century.
Abroad, more approaches are used to study conflicts
Abroad, conflictology is taught at the largest universities
Bachelor's and Master's degrees in conflict management are available abroad
Abroad, conflictology is a science, mainly of an applied nature.

As for domestic conflictology, the first publications on this topic appeared only in the 20s of the 20th century (the first work dates back to 1924; its authors are M. I. Mogilevsky and P. O. Griffin). In these works, the problem of conflicts was first identified as an independent one, and the term “conflict” already appears in the titles themselves. And as a separate science, conflictology took shape in Russia in the early 90s. At present, Russian researchers are paying more and more attention to conflictology and the problem of conflict.

Now the time has come to say a few words about the central concept of conflictology - conflict.

Conflict in its general understanding, it is the most acute way to resolve contradictions in views, goals, and interests that arise during social interaction. The essence of the conflict lies in the confrontation between its participants, accompanied by negative emotions. Often this confrontation goes beyond social norms and rules.

But conflictology distinguishes between two main types of conflicts - social conflict and intrapersonal conflict.

Social conflict is the most acute way of developing and resolving contradictions that are important for people that arise during their interaction. The essence of such a conflict is similar to the essence expressed in the above definition of conflict.

Intrapersonal conflict is an acute negative experience caused by a long struggle of internal psychological structures, reflecting the contradictory connections of a person with the social environment, and also complicating and delaying decision-making.

The ability to recognize and prevent the occurrence of conflict, as well as to manage and neutralize it, opens up enormous opportunities for a person. It allows any person not only to effectively resolve problematic situations and successfully get out of difficult situations associated with conflicts, but also to anticipate potentially dangerous situations and take appropriate actions to suppress them. By and large, such a skill can make a person’s life more harmonious, painted in brighter colors and filled with predominantly positive emotions. Of course, we should not idealize, but if all people on the planet applied the principles of effective conflict prevention and resolution in their lives, then, for sure, there would be less disagreement, hatred, and wars in the world.

Here is a simple example at the everyday level: if, for example, two family members do not know conflict resolution skills, then if a dispute, misunderstanding, or disagreement arises, the situation with a high degree of probability can develop into a serious family scandal, the result of which can simply be negative emotions of people towards to each other, and complete discord and even a break in family relationships. But when at least one person has the skills of conflict management, he is able, firstly, to prevent the situation from getting out of control and leading to devastating consequences, and secondly, to make sure that it does not appear at all, because he can recognize it before it even appears. And this can be applied not only to the area of family relationships, but also to any other.

Application of knowledge about conflicts

As already mentioned, we live in a world in which all kinds of disagreements, disputes, clashes, contradictions, etc. often arise. And even if the situation around you now is positive or at least neutral, it is not a fact that everything will continue to go like clockwork and no conflict situation will arise. Even such a superficial look tells us that conflicts need to be resolved.

But let's talk more specifically about why you need to apply knowledge about conflicts:

The benefits of applying knowledge about conflicts are obvious. But it would not be superfluous to note that these are not all the advantages of this skill. In fact, there are much more of them, including a positive influence on the future generation, in other words, on one’s children, because, as is known, the skills and abilities acquired by a person are passed on to his children in the form of predispositions at the genetic level. So, by studying conflict management, you can be sure that you are making not only your life better, but also the lives of your sons, daughters and even grandchildren.

How to learn this?

Continuing the conversation about innate and acquired skills, it is important to say that from birth a person does not have any knowledge. Any information is absorbed by a person over time. Skills develop in a similar way. If a person has a predisposition to something, in our case, to function competently in conflict situations, with practice his skills will be honed and will be useful in life. But if a person does not have such a predisposition, he has to learn solely by trial and error. But the main thing is to learn, because, as the famous proverb says: “It’s hard to learn, but it’s easy to fight.” Moreover, a person has an amazing ability to learn anything, naturally, with effort. You can learn in two ways: by studying theory and applying knowledge in practice.

Conflictology in theory - this is information that you can find in books, textbooks, from other people and from other sources;
Conflictology in practice - This is the use of the information received in real life.

However, situations when a person does not go beyond theory are no exception. Yes, he has information, but it does not bring him any benefit. And this is not because the information is of poor quality or useless, but because, as a rule, he simply does not know in what direction to direct his efforts so that something starts to work out.

Taking this nuance into account, we developed our training. Its goal is not just to introduce the reader to a powerful theoretical base, but to bring to his consciousness the idea of its practical application, to teach him how to use it in his life.

Keep in mind that our conflict management training has both theoretical and practical aspects. The theoretical part will introduce you to the basics of conflict management and answer the most common questions within the framework of the topic under consideration. And the practical part contains valuable tips, tricks and methods that you will apply. Moreover, both theory and practice are supplemented with simple illustrative examples in order to eliminate the factor of misunderstanding.

Want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how suitable it is for you, you can take our test. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

Lessons on conflict management

After studying quite a large amount of theoretical materials on conflict management, highlighting the main points, systematizing them and adapting them to practice, we developed a set of unique lessons on this topic. These lessons discuss the most important sections of conflictology, as well as present the opinions of outstanding scientists and the results of some scientific research. The greatest value of these lessons lies in the fact that great attention is paid to practice.

How to take classes?

As has already been noted more than once, the materials of our conflict management training are maximally adapted for practical use, and for use by absolutely any person. But in no case should we forget that the decisive factor here is not the study of the material, but its practical use. Reading, studying, knowing a lot of useful and interesting things is, of course, good. But if knowledge that can be applied in life is not applied, its price will be low, because they will not bring you any benefit. Keep this in mind.

You can study each of the lessons step by step. As an example, here is a simple algorithm (but you can develop your own):

Day one - studying the material
Day two - re-studying the material to consolidate
Day three - applying the acquired knowledge in practice
Day four - summing up the application of the material from the lesson learned
Days five, six and seven - rest

Thus, it will take you a little more than a month to study this training. If this period seems too long for you, make your own schedule and study/practice, for example, not one lesson a week, but two. Find the option that is most comfortable for you.

I would also like to say that you don’t just need to apply a skill once, even successfully, but gradually and purposefully hone it in order to introduce it into your arsenal of usual actions. Try to form it in yourself (according to some studies, this takes 21 days).

During the learning process, use all kinds of auxiliary materials - a notebook, diary, organizer, computer or gadget. For example, set a beep in your smartphone's task scheduler at your scheduled study time to remind you that it's time to start studying. Or make a short note in a notebook every time you behaved effectively or ineffectively in a conflict situation. You can come up with anything - the main thing is that it is for your benefit.